Beyond the Void

Central America Travelogue (6): Roatán Island

Wed, 11 Mar 2026 22:39:00 -0700

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Flying to Roatán Island

Roatán Island is Honduras’s largest island in the Caribbean and its primary international tourist destination. Located about 65 kilometers off the Caribbean coast of Honduras, the island sees many Caribbean cruise ships dock each year. As a result, a tourism industry has grown around these visitors. Due to Honduras’s poor reputation, many people consider it a very dangerous country, so very few tourists travel to mainland Honduras. I departed from Belize City International Airport and flew to Roatán. In fact, there aren’t many tourists arriving by plane either, which is evident from the airport’s simple facilities. However, it boasts a fairly rich number of routes with several international destinations. As an international flight, there was security before boarding, but it was still relatively relaxed compared to flying on large aircraft. The flight this time was similar to the Belize domestic routes I had taken before—a small plane with only a few seats. The flight passed over the large lagoons off the coast of Belize, offering views of the magical seascapes below. Before long, I arrived at Roatán.

After the plane landed at Roatán Island Airport, it began to rain heavily. I ran into the terminal building with the other passengers through the rain. The immigration process in Honduras was more rigorous and orderly than I had expected; first, I filled out an entry form online—the airport even had free Wi-Fi—and then staff checked my documents and asked about the purpose of my trip and subsequent travel plans.

Western Villa Area

Since it wasn’t peak tourist season and I didn’t arrive on a luxury cruise ship, there were no organized day trips. Considering the inconvenience of transportation, I rented a car at the airport to tour Roatán on my own. Unfortunately, it rained and stormed the whole time, and with the bad weather, I didn’t see much beautiful scenery. Nevertheless, Roatán gave me an initial taste of Honduras, setting the stage for the rest of my trip.

Roatán is long and narrow, stretching dozens of kilometers from east to west. I planned to go west to the end of the island first, then turn back east, covering as much of the island as possible in one day. I thought Roatán wasn’t big, but the island is densely populated. It took more than an hour of driving before I reached the western tip. The road conditions along the way were decent, and I passed many villages with clearly insufficient infrastructure and many dilapidated houses. It is said that local residents’ incomes are slightly higher than those on mainland Honduras, but overall, they are still among the lower levels in Central America.

However, when I reached the western tip, the scene was entirely different: all the land with ocean views was separated by walls, forming individual villas. These villas were clearly not built for local residents but were vacation homes targeting foreign investors, especially North American tourists. That’s right—even in Honduras, tourism real estate is used to attract foreign investment.

Charter Cities

Speaking of foreign investment, I must mention a very interesting place in the central-eastern part of Roatán called Próspera. This place is an experimental community established by the Próspera company under the legal framework of Honduras’s ZEDE (Zones for Employment and Economic Development), closely related to the “Charter Cities” movement. I heard about the concept of charter cities a long time ago. Years ago, when I was in Switzerland, I came across a self-proclaimed micro-nation called Liberland. Similar to it, the charter city movement gathers a group of libertarians from around the world. They discuss how to establish medieval-like free cities (similar to the Hanseatic League and Italian city-states) in the modern world. The goal is to restore the essence of cities: gaining autonomous status, breaking away from the control of central power, and having the merchant class establish an order centered on commerce.

Since its inception, this organization has been lobbying around the world and looking for soil where it can practice its ideas. Its most famous experimental community is Próspera on Roatán. Originally, I planned to drive to Próspera, but the weather was terrible that day, the roads were incredibly muddy, and the village roads along the way were almost impassable. To avoid getting the car stuck in the mud and unable to move, I had to abandon my plan to visit Próspera, which was a bit of a pity. Próspera doesn’t seem to have achieved success yet, as even the most basic roads have not been fully constructed. Currently, it probably remains in a utopian experimental phase. I sincerely hope it can find a suitable industry and realize its vision of autonomy, rather than becoming like the “compounds” in Myanmar.

The East

The eastern part of Roatán also has some resort towns. Local prices are generally cheap, though not necessarily low for the local residents. However, Roatán has long been considered one of the cheapest tourist destinations in the Caribbean. Driving through villages along the way, I found the infrastructure to be extremely poor: muddy roads, dilapidated houses, a lack of basic water and sewage facilities, and trash everywhere.

I intended to drive to the eastern tip, but the road was too muddy. While attempting to climb a hill, the wheels slipped. For safety reasons, I eventually gave up the plan to reach the far east and turned back.

The Long Night

In the evening, I returned to the vicinity of the airport. This might not be considered a tourist area, as there were almost no dining or lodging facilities. I found a fried chicken fast-food place near a shopping center, which was perhaps the best option around. Ultimately, I stayed at a small inn near the airport. It was very cheap, but upon arrival, I found the inn to be quite dilapidated. It had a large iron gate with no signs; you couldn’t find it without knocking. Dusk had fallen, and after I knocked, a man carrying a rifle opened the door. The gun was decorated with hand-painted patterns and graffiti, and he was carrying a large amount of ammunition. At first, I was startled, but he was actually just a regular security guard. This scene was a preview of what mainland Honduras would be like in the following days, where armed security guards are very common. This man didn’t speak English, so I had to explain in simple Spanish that I had a reservation. He then called another man who spoke some English, seemingly the owner, who checked me in after a simple registration.

The room was very basic, and hygiene was almost non-existent. Worse still, there were many mosquitoes in the room. Even though I asked the owner for a mosquito coil, it didn’t help much. I slept very poorly that night, and the entire night felt exceptionally long. When I woke up in the morning, I had many mosquito bites on my body. Getting bitten by mosquitoes in Central America carries safety risks because I couldn’t know if the local mosquitoes carried dangerous pathogens, especially Dengue fever. Fortunately, no problems occurred later, and this served as a personal experience of the dangerous side of Honduras.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-6/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Central America Travelogue (Part 5): Belize City

Wed, 04 Feb 2026 22:40:00 +1300

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Arriving in Belize City

As the former capital of the country, Belize City is the largest city in this small nation, with a population of only about 70,000. However, Belize itself is a sparsely populated country, comparable in scale to a Caribbean island. The actual capital of Belize is Belmopan, located deep in the rainforest, but it is a very small settlement with only about 10,000 people. Unless traveling by land to Guatemala, few tourists visit it specifically.

Most of the historical sites in Belize City were left by British colonizers. The predecessor of Belize was “British Honduras,” which only became an independent nation in 1981. British Honduras was almost insignificant in the vast colonial map of the British Empire, but it was Britain’s only colony in Central America. Rather than being established for trade purposes, British Honduras existed more as a check against Spanish colonies. Due to its location on the Caribbean coast in the tropical lowlands, British Honduras had a very small population when it was founded. To develop the region, the British brought in a large number of Black people from other Caribbean islands for plantations. These people mixed with the locals to become the majority population of Belize today.

Soon, the small plane landed at Belize City Municipal Airport. This small airport is right on the shore of Belize City and can only handle small aircraft, while Belize’s large international airport is located inland about a dozen kilometers outside the city, set within the tropical rainforest. After getting off the plane, I quickly retrieved my luggage. The baggage claim area was somewhat simple, but sufficient for an airport of this scale.

I saw several taxi drivers waiting. I went up and negotiated the price directly, a process easier than I expected. The fare was ten US dollars, with no extra fees. Perhaps because this is not a major tourist destination, there aren’t large crowds living off it, so in this kind of market environment, overcharging isn’t usually common, though prices aren’t particularly low either.

Touring Belize City

After checking in and dropping off my luggage, I first walked along the coast for a while to enjoy the coastal scenery. The view near the pier was quite nice, though the weather was scorching, and steam seemed to be rising from the seawater.

While walking along the shore, I entered a large supermarket operated by Chinese people. This supermarket was spacious with ample air conditioning, attracting many locals.

I noticed that almost all the goods were imported from China. They had everything one could need, including many items with Chinese characteristics. Overall, however, prices were not cheap, given the high transportation costs and small market.

After looking around, I found a very old-fashioned Chinese restaurant in the city. The door was locked, but there was a doorbell, and a sign on the door said “Open.” After I rang the bell, the owner opened the door for me. Chatting with her, I learned she had been in Belize for over twenty years and her children were born here. Like many Chinese immigrants venturing out into the world, her plan was to work for a few more years to earn more money and then eventually return to her hometown in Guangdong. I ordered a portion of fried rice and a stir-fry; the taste was decent, and the price was 32 Belize dollars ($16 USD). This price is certainly not cheap, but it is standard for the Caribbean region.

After eating, I headed to the Museum of Belize, which might be the only cultural facility in Belize City. It was noon, with a blazing sun outside and extremely high humidity, which was exhausting. Fortunately, the museum had plenty of air conditioning, like an oasis. The building itself is quite historic: this brick structure was originally the colonial prison of British Honduras, built in 1857 and used until it closed in 1993. In 2002, the prison was converted into a museum and opened to the public. Walking into the museum, one can still see the preserved cell structures and heavy iron doors. The museum has only a few rooms displaying the history of Belize, particularly a section dedicated to the history of the slave trade.

There weren’t many exhibits, but some things were quite unique, such as this Belizean flag recovered from beneath the World Trade Center in New York.

Another unmissable site near the museum is the “Embassy of the Republic of China (Taiwan) in Belize,” located at “No. 1 Taiwan Street.” Belize is one of the few countries that still maintains official diplomatic relations with Taipei. The embassy is a small house facing the sea, with the Blue Sky, White Sun flag flying. While I was stopping to look at the embassy, I happened to encounter a diplomat from Taiwan passing by. He proactively offered to take a photo for me, and we had a brief chat. He asked where I was from and mentioned that there are rarely tourists from China here. However, he also said with a smile, “We are all Chinese people, both sides of the strait are one family,” which was a bit surprising to hear.

After leaving the embassy, I crossed Haulover Creek, which flows through Belize City, and arrived at the southern half of the city. Belize City is divided in two by this river: the northern half is mainly government offices and tourist facilities, while the southern half concentrates a large number of commercial facilities and local residents. Many travel guides warn of poor safety in the south, but when I visited during the day, I found it quite lively and didn’t feel any sense of danger.

The two most important historical buildings in the southern half are an Anglican church and the Government House. I first walked to the church and found a wedding in progress, so I couldn’t enter for a closer look. The full name of this church is St. John’s Cathedral, built between 1812 and 1820; it is the oldest Anglican church in Central America. The bricks used to build the church were brought from Britain, originally as ballast for ships. The church itself is well-preserved, and the stone architecture is authentically British in style, reminding me of British churches in other tropical colonies, such as St. John’s Cathedral in Hong Kong. Interestingly, this church was once the place where the British held coronation ceremonies for four Miskito Kings of the Mosquito Coast overseas, witnessing the history of the British Empire’s expansion in the Caribbean.

Opposite the church is the former Government House of British Honduras, which unfortunately was undergoing maintenance and was not open to tourists. Luckily, the security guard allowed me to look around the exterior freely. This Government House was built in 1814 and served as the official residence for successive British governors of British Honduras until Belize’s independence in 1981. The architecture follows a typical Caribbean colonial style, with a wooden structure raised above the ground and surrounded by wide verandas, which facilitate air circulation and provide shelter from tropical downpours and the sun. After independence, the building briefly served as the official residence of the Governor-General of Belize before being converted into a museum displaying colonial-era furniture and artifacts. There are many historical signs and exhibits around the Government House introducing its architectural features, how it adapted to the tropical climate, and a famous gentleman who contributed greatly to the development of British Honduras.

After leaving this ancient building, I continued south along the road and reached Bird Island at the southeastern tip of Belize City. The island has some recreational facilities like sports fields and educational posters about the importance of education. Due to the heat, I was constantly drenched in sweat. Although I hadn’t walked for long in Belize City, I felt very exhausted, so I found a bar on the island and ordered a beer. Like many other Caribbean islands, locals are very enthusiastic about alcohol. Bars are everywhere, and whether it’s beer or various spirits, prices are quite cheap. In such a hot environment, sitting by the sea facing the easterly breeze and slowly sipping a drink in a gazebo was truly pleasant. Without realizing it, I spent half the afternoon there.

In the evening, I started walking back. While I was on my way, it suddenly started to rain, and the rain came down fiercely, almost becoming a rainstorm. I had to run to find shelter and saw a small restaurant, so I ran inside. From the outside, there was nothing special about this restaurant, but after entering, I found that the menu actually had Chinese, and the dishes were in the style of a Hong Kong tea restaurant. So I sat down, planning to have dinner there. Just as I was waiting for my food, the sound of gongs and drums suddenly came from outside. By then the rain had stopped, and many customers went outside to see the excitement. It turned out to be several people dressed in traditional Cantonese clothing coming to perform a lion dance. Only upon closer observation did I realize this was an activity organized by the local Chinese association to celebrate the Spring Festival. In Cantonese tradition, a lion dance is an essential part of the New Year. The whole lion dance was very lively, and firecrackers were set off after the performance, in a completely traditional New Year celebration style.

After a bit of conversation, I learned that the Belize Chinese Association (伯利茲中華會館) has a significant presence locally because Belize actually has a considerable number of Chinese immigrants. As early as the British Honduras era, early Cantonese people migrated here from Hong Kong as laborers for the British, and new immigrants continued to arrive through the late twentieth century. Since China’s Reform and Opening-up, many new immigrants have also come, still mostly from Guangdong. Additionally, the presence of the Republic of China embassy has also attracted some Taiwanese people to settle and work here.

It is worth mentioning that to limit the large number of Chinese immigrants, Belize even established a visa fee as high as $2,000 at the end of the 20th century specifically targeting holders of People’s Republic of China passports. Strictly speaking, this fee was an official deposit. Applicants needed to pay thousands of dollars as a bond, which theoretically could be refunded after legal departure; however, it is said that in practice, it was very difficult to get back. Therefore, Belize used to be known as having “the most expensive visa in the world.” Since 2017, Chinese people with US visas or legal residency status can enter Belize visa-free.

Diplomatic Tussle between Belize and Guatemala

Regarding Belizean diplomacy, there is also a lesser-known piece of history. Since its independence in 1981, Belize has had a territorial dispute with its neighbor Guatemala, and Guatemala even refused to recognize Belize’s status as a nation for a time. In 1984, the Republic of China ambassador to Guatemala, Lu I-cheng, met with Belize’s first Prime Minister, George Price, which met with strong resistance from Guatemala. Therefore, mainland China seized the opportunity to establish diplomatic relations with Belize first in 1987. However, things changed two years later. A wealthy Chinese businessman in Belize named William Quinto (伍永泉), using his personal relationship with the Father of the Nation, George Price, and financial support, successfully lobbied political circles, leading the Belizean Ministry of Foreign Affairs to shift to diplomatic relations with Taipei and sever ties with Beijing until today. William Quinto himself was sent to Taipei to serve as Belize’s ambassador, successfully maintaining this diplomatic relationship.

After the Cold War, Guatemala recognized Belize’s sovereignty, so it no longer objected to Taipei’s moves. However, Beijing did not let the matter rest. As punishment for Guatemala, China once exercised its veto power in the UN Security Council in 1997 to block the UN from sending peacekeeping forces to Guatemala.

Behind these diplomatic farces, the root cause was the work of the British Empire. The sovereignty and territorial dispute between Guatemala and Belize stems from the “Wyke-Aycinena Treaty” signed between Guatemala and Britain in 1859. Similar to various treaties signed by Britain using deception and coercion in those days (such as the “Treaty of Waitangi” signed with the Maori in New Zealand), this treaty was interpreted differently by both sides, and the text contained various ambiguities. Britain believed the treaty was a boundary-delimitation treaty and that Guatemala had agreed to the boundary as set. Guatemala believed it was “territory in exchange for transport,” claiming the treaty had a clause (Article 7) stating that both sides would work to build a road connecting Guatemala City to the Caribbean. The dispute lies in the fact that the treaty text says “easiest means of communication,” which actually meant a road, and Guatemala believed Britain should pay for it. But later Britain did not build the road as agreed, so Guatemala considers the treaty invalid due to Britain’s breach of contract. Currently, Guatemala and Belize are still litigating this matter in the International Court of Justice in The Hague (Case 177). The likely final result is that Belize will have its existing territory confirmed, while Guatemala will receive some form of compensation. As for whether the compensation can be realized and who will pay it (Britain or Belize), that is another matter.

In the next part, I will begin recounting my experiences in Honduras. Please stay tuned.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-5/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Central America Travelogue (Part 4): San Pedro

Sun, 30 Nov 2025 23:17:00 -0800

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Entering Belize

After the international ferry from Chetumal, Mexico arrived at the port of San Pedro, all passengers had to disembark. About half of the travelers, including myself, had San Pedro as their destination, while the rest would continue on the same boat to Caye Caulker in Belize. Upon disembarking, the first thing that caught my eye was the colorful “belize” letters wall. I’ve noticed that almost all cities in Latin America, regardless of size, like to build these letter walls as photo spots for tourists. This is despite the fact that Belize is not strictly part of “Latin America,” as its official language is English, having formerly been the British colony of “British Honduras.”

The immigration checkpoint in San Pedro is small, even appearing somewhat rudimentary. However, all passengers lined up together to process their entry, and the whole process was quite smooth. The border official checked my passport and stamped it without any extra hassle or confusion. Overall, the border officials in various American countries have been fairly reliable, reflecting that the power of their central governments is reasonably effective (the Mexican side of the US-Mexico border might be an exception).

Upon entering Belize, I immediately felt a sharp difference from Mexico. Compared to Mexico, which is predominantly Mestizo, the physical features of the people here are somewhat different. Although still mixed, the most common appearance I saw was that of people of African descent. These individuals might have come from other British colonies in the Caribbean, being descendants of mixed heritage between enslaved Africans and the indigenous Maya. Additionally, there are many immigrants from all over the world here, with people of Indian descent being the most prominent.

San Pedro

The cityscape of San Pedro resembles a typical small town in a Caribbean island nation: intense sunshine, a lazy atmosphere, and a certain kind of unique dilapidation. The town is situated on a narrow strip of land with the sea on both sides: to the west is the small bay of San Pedro, and to the east, it faces the vast Caribbean Sea directly. The core area of the town is very small, and the main streets can be explored entirely on foot.

I arrived here after noon, so I decided to find a place for lunch. Although San Pedro is east of the Yucatán Peninsula, it is one hour behind Chetumal, so the local time was exactly 12:00 PM. As a town centered on tourism, the variety of restaurants here is much richer than in Chetumal. I randomly walked into a restaurant called Elvi’s Kitchen and ordered a Caribbean specialty, stewed chicken, served with gravy, rice and beans, fried plantains, and vegetables. It tasted delicious.

The price for this lunch (20 Belize Dollars) was also reasonable, cheaper than I had expected. I also ordered a local beer for 7 Belize Dollars. The local currency, the Belize Dollar (BZD), is pegged to the US Dollar at a fixed rate of 1 USD to 2 BZD, making conversions very simple. In San Pedro, a bottle of water generally costs between 0.5 to 1 USD (1 to 2 BZD). In terms of accommodation, an ordinary guesthouse can be found for a few dozen dollars. Prices here are a bit more expensive than in Mexico but cheaper than many Caribbean island nations. Considering that Belize has almost no industry and very limited agriculture, all goods rely on international trade imports. Coupled with a sparse population, a small market, and no major ports on major shipping routes, logistics costs are naturally high. Therefore, my initial expectation for the cost of living here was actually quite high, roughly equivalent to other Caribbean islands.

After arriving at the booked guesthouse and dropping off my luggage, I decided to head out and walk around the town to get a feel for the atmosphere of this Caribbean town. The central area of San Pedro town, besides restaurants, supermarkets, and convenience stores aimed at tourists, also features souvenir shops and travel agencies. Beyond that, the main attraction is the beach. The town’s beaches are concentrated on the east side, facing the open Caribbean Sea, and the water is relatively clear. There weren’t too many tourists on the beach; many were leisurely lying on the sand sunbathing. There are also many bars and restaurants next to the beach.

Golf Carts

A unique feature of San Pedro is the golf carts running all over the streets. It’s very interesting; I noticed many as soon as I disembarked. Here, golf carts serve as a lightweight alternative to cars. Not only are they used for personal transport, but there are also freight carts, taxis, and school buses. Almost every shop has such a vehicle parked in front. I finished walking through the core area of San Pedro town quite quickly, so I decided to rent a golf cart to explore further. After checking a few shops, I finally rented one from an owner for 40 USD a day, which included the cost of fuel. They didn’t even check my driver’s license; I’m not sure if there are no local legal requirements for it.

After renting the cart, I began driving out of the town toward more distant parts of the island. The golf cart is open on all sides and has a roof for shade, so it felt quite cool once I started moving. However, there were many golf carts on the road, and it was even congested in many places. After driving for a while, I realized it wasn’t as easy as I had imagined because the roads were quite bumpy and had numerous speed bumps. Since I had already been tossed around on the boat for two hours in the morning, my back was nearly exhausted.

It’s not just tourists driving golf carts; locals rely on them heavily as well. Some carts have even been modified specifically for transporting goods. Passing by a school, I saw a six-seater cart with a dozen children sitting on it, acting as a local school bus.

After driving for over thirty minutes on the island’s country roads, I reached Secret Beach in the northwestern part of Ambergris Caye. Facing Chetumal Bay, the water here is relatively calm. Similar to San Pedro, the shoreline is lined with bars and restaurants, and there are even seats and umbrellas in the water, as well as over-water massage services.

Tourism Real Estate Economy

Rather than the pristine scenery, what stands out more on the island are the numerous vacation real estate developments along the road. Along the way, I saw all kinds of real estate advertisements: beachfront condos, standalone houses, and even land for sale for self-built homes, and of course, no shortage of timeshare properties.

From the advertisements, these real estate prices don’t seem particularly high—cheaper ones are around a few tens of thousands of dollars, though there are also multi-million dollar luxury homes. But in my opinion, these prices don’t fully reflect the carrying costs and seem more like a commercial trap. First, real estate liquidity here is low; it’s easy to buy but hard to sell. Second, if it’s not for long-term residence and you only visit for a vacation once a year, maintenance costs are high. Located in the tropical lowlands, high temperatures and high humidity cause buildings to constantly corrode, and there are frequent natural disasters like hurricanes. Therefore, these properties require constant effort for maintenance, or they will quickly fall into disrepair. Furthermore, while the natural scenery is beautiful, it’s not irreplaceable; similar Caribbean views can be found in many places. If living there long-term, one would soon find it monotonous and boring. The land area is small, and people can easily suffer from “Island Fever,” which is not conducive to mental and physical health.

An ocean-view apartment community with many golf carts parked.

Luxury vacation villas under construction.

Vacant land in the marsh with a billboard saying “Build Your Home.”

San Pedro Airport

After spending a leisurely afternoon and evening in San Pedro, the next morning, I decided to take a plane to leave San Pedro for the former capital, Belize City. Although Belize’s land area is not large, apart from the scattered islands, almost the entire territory is tropical rainforest, making transportation extremely inconvenient. As a result, a specialized transportation network centered on small aircraft has developed here. Almost every small town has a small airport, making it the primary mode of travel for both locals and tourists. I flew with Maya Island Air, and surprisingly, the ticket prices were very affordable; even without booking in advance, it only cost around 50 USD.

The small airport in San Pedro is not far from the town center, reachable within a ten-minute walk. While many people choose pricey golf cart taxis that might charge 20 USD for a few minutes’ ride, I decided to walk while the morning air was still cool. Upon reaching the airport, the staff quickly processed my check-in, and I received the most rudimentary boarding pass I have ever seen.

The airport terminal isn’t a traditional large airport; instead, it feels a bit like a common aero club in the US. I ordered a coffee in the second-floor lounge, where the environment was excellent and I could watch the planes outside. Despite the small size of the airport, during the ten-plus minutes I spent eating breakfast, I could see multiple small planes taking off and landing, showing that the flight density is quite high.

There is no security check before boarding here. After hearing the announcement, everyone was led directly onto the tarmac. The small plane I took was a British Britten-Norman BN-2, manufactured in 1983, which can seat seven or eight people.

I had assumed that staff would weigh each passenger before boarding to ensure weight and balance, but in reality, they just visually estimated the weight and then manually assigned seats—simple and direct. For small aircraft, weight and balance are critical for aviation safety, and once a person’s seat is assigned, they absolutely cannot move.

What I found incredible was that it took less than five minutes from the boarding announcement to the plane taxiing and taking off. There were no safety instructions or briefings before takeoff; almost as soon as everyone was settled, we were airborne. The pilot didn’t say a single word the entire time.

The plane’s cruising altitude wasn’t high, making it perfect for sightseeing. One of Belize’s most famous attractions is the Great Blue Hole at sea. To see the Blue Hole, one also needs to take a small plane for a tour. However, I didn’t go to the Blue Hole this time, but flew directly to Belize City Municipal Airport.

In the next post, I will share my experiences in Belize City: Central America Travelogue (5): Belize City.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-4/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Central America Travelogue (Part 3): Chetumal

Thu, 20 Nov 2025 00:01:00 -0800

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-3/ -

In early 2025, I embarked on my Central American journey once again. Previously, I had visited Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama. This trip started from Mexico, heading to Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. My first stop was Chetumal in the southeastern state of Quintana Roo, Mexico.

Chetumal

Chetumal is situated on the border of Mexico and Belize, while its home state, Quintana Roo, is Mexico’s most renowned tourist state, located on the Yucatán Peninsula. The famous Cancún is also located here. Unlike most Mexican states, Quintana Roo and the neighboring state of Yucatán have consistently been listed by the US Department of State as the only areas with lower security risks, thus attracting a large number of international tourists. However, these tourists are mainly concentrated in Cancún in the northern part of the Yucatán Peninsula. That area boasts beautiful coastlines, fine sandy beaches, and various all-inclusive resorts, making it a favorite for vacationers who enjoy lounging, eating, and drinking. The Yucatán Peninsula is home to numerous ruins of the ancient Mayan civilization, as this was one of the core regions of the Mayan world.

In comparison, the southern city I arrived in—Chetumal—seemed much more deserted. Its fame is far less than that of Cancún, and the number of tourists is significantly lower. I arrived by plane from Mexico City, a flight of about two hours. The plane landed at Chetumal Airport right on the border line, and upon disembarking, the first thing that caught my eye was the stretching tropical rainforest. The natural landscape here appeared very pristine; in other words, the level of development is low. Chetumal is a small town, and apart from some landscaping along the coastal promenade designed for tourists, the overall impression is quite desolate. Since I arrived in the afternoon and there wasn’t much to explore, I only took a walk along the seaside promenade that day.

The hotel I chose was located near the town center, but even so, it was pitch black outside after nightfall, and finding a place to eat was not easy. Fortunately, Quintana Roo’s economy is relatively developed, and it is not on the main drug trafficking routes, so the security situation is relatively decent. The hotel receptionist told me that even though it was dark outside at night, it was reasonably safe to go out.

For dinner, I randomly found a local Italian restaurant. Although it was called an Italian restaurant, most items on the menu were still Mexican dishes; the Italian features were limited to pizza and pasta. But then again, isn’t most “Italian food” in the United States similarly localized? This shop’s Caldo Xóchitl (Mexican flower chicken soup) tasted really good.

The Fast Boat to Belize

Early the next morning, after a simple breakfast, I walked with my luggage to the seaside pier. This pier is located on the coastline of downtown Chetumal. There are usually few tourists; people only gather here when there is a scheduled boat to Belize.

Before departure, all passengers must first complete Mexican exit procedures at the pier. Generally speaking, if leaving Mexico by plane, there is no formal “exit immigration check,” similar to border controls in the US, Canada, or the UK. This is presumably because airlines report passenger data directly to government agencies, so no extra border check is required. Entering the US by land also doesn’t require a Mexican exit check, but if leaving Mexico via land or water to other Central American countries, one must go through formal border control procedures. I strongly suspect that Mexico is under pressure from the United States to analyze personnel movement information for the US, to facilitate the capture of fugitives fleeing the US by land.

Boat tickets did not need to be booked in advance and cost 1,300 Mexican Pesos. After completing the paperwork for the ticket, I began a long wait. The boat, originally scheduled to depart at 10:00 AM, could not set sail because the Mexican border officials had not arrived. At first, the passengers waited patiently, but as time passed, the atmosphere gradually became anxious. Finally, after who knows how long, several border officials arrived late, dragging their somewhat weary bodies. Fortunately, their efficiency was acceptable; passengers formed a long line, handed over passports for inspection one by one, submitted customs declarations, and were then allowed to board. The customs check went smoothly without any surprises. I had previously read online that crossing the land border from Chetumal into Belize was much more troublesome, involving not only long lines but also potential solicitation of bribes by officials, which is a real headache.

The vessel from Chetumal to Belize was less of a ferry and more of a small skiff, accommodating at most a dozen people. Since it was a speedboat, the cabin was enclosed or semi-enclosed, so one couldn’t go out on deck to feel the breeze like on a regular ferry.

My destination was Belize’s most famous tourist city—San Pedro. The voyage from Chetumal to San Pedro takes about two hours. However, once I was actually on the boat, I found those two hours much harder to endure than I had imagined. The speedboat jolted violently as it moved; even though the sea surface looked calm, the hull was frequently slapped by waves, pitching up and down and causing dizziness. I had assumed that since the route was within a bay, it would be calm, but I didn’t expect the turbulence to be severe enough to make me almost want to vomit. Fortunately, I hadn’t eaten much that morning, otherwise it would have been even more unbearable. Even more awkward was that the prolonged bumping put pressure on my bladder, creating a strong urge to urinate, but there was no toilet on the boat, nor could I stand up in the violent shaking. I could only tough it out, counting the time second by second. After two hours of suffering, the speedboat finally arrived in San Pedro. When the boat entered the harbor and slowed down, the water finally became steady, and the hull stopped shaking; I finally let out a sigh of relief.

The water surface presented a turquoise color, looking exceptionally beautiful under the intense sunlight.

Chetumal Bay and Ambergris Caye

Chetumal Bay is an enclosed body of water, and with rivers injecting fresh water, the salinity is relatively low. My departure point, Chetumal, lies at the mouth of the Hondo River in the western part of the bay, and my destination was San Pedro on Ambergris Caye (Ambergris translates to “Dragon’s Spittle Fragrance”). Ambergris Caye looks like a peninsula on the map, but if you look closely, the border between Mexico and Belize is actually a waterway. According to research, this landmass was actually a peninsula connected to the present-day Mexican mainland. To shorten the route from Chetumal Bay to the Caribbean Sea, the ancient Mayans manually excavated a canal at the narrowest point connecting the peninsula to the mainland. This waterway is the Bacalar Chico, which has a history of over 1,500 years.

The reason Ambergris Caye became Belizean territory is that in 1893, the United Kingdom and Mexico signed the Mariscal-Spencer Treaty. This treaty defined the territory of British Honduras with the Hondo River and Bacalar Chico as the boundary, so Ambergris Caye to the south became part of what is now Belize. This treaty was effectively Mexico ceding territory in exchange for Britain ceasing its support of the Mayan rebellion during the “Caste War of Yucatán,” and simultaneously, having Britain recognize Mexico’s sovereignty over most of the Yucatán Peninsula—a common tactic used by the British Empire during the Victorian era to manage its global colonial system. During the Caste War, Mayans fled Mexico and established San Pedro on Ambergris Caye, becoming early settlers of British Honduras.

In the next post, I will recount my observations on Ambergris Caye: Central America Travelogue (Part 4): San Pedro.

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Central America Travelogue (Part 2): Islands on Land

Thu, 13 Nov 2025 22:56:00 -0800

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-2/ -

Central American “Archipelago”

On the surface, the countries of Central America are connected, but in reality, the geographic isolation between them is severe. Although these countries are physically linked by land, historically their interactions have not been close, a fact dictated by Central America’s geography. The lowland plains of Central America are filled with tropical rainforests, making them difficult to develop or settle. Meanwhile, the relatively habitable high-altitude regions are crisscrossed by mountain ranges and numerous active volcanoes, with colonial settlements confined to isolated valleys. Furthermore, there are no major rivers connecting these valleys; turbulent rivers originate from the central mountain ranges and rush rapidly into the ocean. These geographical conditions determined that groups centered in different valleys governed themselves independently, giving rise to “Caudillo” strongmen of various sizes. Even during the Spanish colonial era, each region traded separately with Spain, lacking products to trade with one another. Rather than viewing Central America as a continuous continent, it is better to view it as an isolated “archipelago.”

Political Integration Doomed to Fail

Due to these immense differences, numerous historical attempts to politically unify Central America ultimately ended in failure. To this day, Central American countries are still attempting to achieve a certain degree of economic, cultural, and political integration, but progress is extremely slow. Geographic isolation is the innate condition; upon this foundation, climate differences led to different economic structures, which in turn led to different immigrant groups, ultimately resulting in huge disparities in political systems and interest structures. Uniting these highly localized political entities has always been an extremely difficult task.

The Birth of Independent Nations

Central America once belonged to the Captaincy General of Guatemala within New Spain. Their history as a series of independent nations roughly originates with the independence of Mexico in 1821. At that time, the Napoleonic Wars caused political chaos within Spain, eventually leading to the establishment of the First Mexican Empire. This directly influenced the local elite in Central America, causing them to consider breaking away from Spanish rule to establish an independent and autonomous state. Just two years later, in 1823, the Mexican Empire quickly dissolved, becoming the republican United Mexican States.

The local elites in Central America were unwilling to accept rule from Mexico City, thousands of miles away, and decided to form an independent political entity. This was the United Provinces of Central America (Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), later renamed the Federal Republic of Central America (República Federal de Centro América). Francisco Morazán played an extremely important role in the establishment of this federation, serving as the head of state for Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Costa Rica. In El Salvador and Honduras, there are still “Morazán Departments” named after him today. The initial capital of the United Provinces of Central America was located in Guatemala City (i.e., today’s Antigua), and later moved to San Salvador.

The Collapse of the Federation

Throughout the existence of the United Provinces of Central America, a fierce struggle between Liberals and Conservatives was constant. The Liberals, represented by Morazán, hoped to promote social reform, weaken the power of the Catholic Church and landowners, and implement a more democratic political system. The Conservatives, composed of large estate owners and the Catholic Church, were once loyal to Spain. Even after agreeing to independent statehood, they still wished to maintain the traditional class society.

Behind these two factions, the economic foundations across Central America were actually quite different. Guatemala and El Salvador had fertile land and large indigenous populations; Spanish rulers established a feudal order here based on large haciendas and cash crops, making the Conservative forces powerful. Honduras and Nicaragua had relatively poor soil and smaller populations but possessed better ports, leading to developed trade and the prevalence of Liberal ideas. Although Costa Rica was also suitable for agriculture, it lacked labor and attracted yeoman farmer immigrants from Europe, thus tending towards an enlightened social structure.

Just one year after the nation’s founding, in 1825, the Conservative Manuel José Arce was elected president with the support of the Archbishop of Guatemala, and immediately sent troops to invade the Liberal-reforming province of El Salvador. Morazán, relying on support from Liberals across Nicaragua and Honduras, defeated the President’s army in El Salvador and counterattacked Guatemala, ultimately gaining control of the country. Subsequently, the Conservatives launched multiple rebellions, plunging the country into a long civil war. In 1838, the provinces began to declare independence, and the federation dissolved. Over the next hundred years, there were multiple attempts to reorganize the federation, but all ended in failure.

The Seven Modern Central American Nations

The Northern Triangle: Co-governance by the Right Wing and Gangs

The core of the core of Central America comprises the three countries known as the “Northern Triangle”: 🇬🇹 Guatemala, 🇸🇻 El Salvador, and 🇭🇳 Honduras. These three countries are densely populated, have similar economic levels, and suffer from poor political governance. Compared to Nicaragua, which is poorer per capita, the Northern Triangle countries are more “democratic.” A minority elite in these countries controls vast amounts of capital and land, forming huge estates, while the majority of people exist as tenant farmers and urban poor, struggling at the subsistence line. Their governments are essentially controlled by pro-American right-wing forces friendly to foreign capital. Guatemala and Honduras, in particular, were once known as “Banana Republics.”

For a long time, the grassroots level of society in the Northern Triangle has been ruled by gangs. The famous Central American immigrant gangs, MS-13 and Barrio 18, although born in Los Angeles, USA, were exported back to their countries of origin, becoming transnational criminal organizations. These gangs are rooted in the bottom rungs of society and have large memberships; government elites can only accept bribes and choose to “cooperate for mutual benefit” with them. However, the relationship between gangs is often a life-or-death struggle. Due to gang infighting and shootouts, the Northern Triangle has consistently been one of the regions with the most serious violent crime in the world, with homicide rates 5 to 10 times that of the United States and over 100 times that of Japan.

However, in recent years, a political strongman named Nayib Bukele has emerged in El Salvador. The country is undergoing a high degree of centralization, using forceful means to eliminate most gangs, which has brought about a massive transformation in the social landscape. I felt this deeply during my visit.

🇳🇮 Nicaragua: Left-wing Authoritarianism

Nicaragua is an outlier among the seven countries. Because it is an authoritarian government led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front, its ideology leans towards socialism, which is unique among Central American countries. The founder of the Sandinista National Liberation Front, Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino, began opposing the US occupation forces and their puppet government rulers, the Somoza family, as early as 1927. The Sandinistas finally captured the capital in 1979, establishing a red regime. Obviously, its relationship with the United States is not good, and its relationship with the other three countries of the Central America-4 (CA-4) is lukewarm.

Due to its powerful government and military-police system, Nicaragua’s crime rate is extremely low, leaving almost no room for gangs to survive. However, because of long-term cold relations with the United States, its level of economic development is very backward; it is the most backward country in Central America, faring even worse than Cuba, which faces harsher sanctions.

🇨🇷 Costa Rica: The Little Europe of Central America

Compared to its northern neighbors, Costa Rica’s demographic structure and social development model are significantly different. The proportion of the population with European ancestry in this country is much higher than in other Central American countries, which is closely related to its historical immigration patterns.

Many immigrants to Costa Rica were yeoman farmers from Europe proper; upon arrival, they obtained small plots of land and became self-sufficient. This land tenure system prevented Costa Rica from forming the large hacienda economy prevalent in its northern neighbors, establishing instead a social structure dominated by a small-scale peasant economy. Since the colonial era, Costa Rica’s economic level has consistently been quite good, and today it belongs to the first tier along with Panama. Among Central American countries, Costa Rica’s tourism industry is the most developed, attracting a large number of visitors.

🇵🇦 Panama: The Canal and Offshore Finance

Further south lies Panama, which barely counts as Central America. Panama did not originally belong to Central America, nor did it participate in the United Provinces of Central America; instead, it was part of Gran Colombia. However, it later became a member of Central America, a development closely related to the construction of the Panama Canal. Under US intervention, the Department of Panama in Colombia declared independence in 1903 and immediately received US recognition, beginning the construction of the US-led Panama Canal. Thereafter, Panama remained a US protectorate and semi-colony until 1999, following the signing of the Panama Canal Treaties, when Panama finally regained sovereignty and became fully independent.

Today, the general public’s impression of Panama is basically tied to the Panama Canal, while the “Panama Papers” scandal in recent years has brought its other economic pillar—its role as an offshore tax haven—to global attention. These two factors—the canal economy and offshore financial services—constitute Panama’s economic foundation, making it particularly unique among Central American nations. Due to these industrial advantages, Panama’s level of economic development is the highest in Central America.

🇧🇿 Belize: The Imprint of the British Empire

Belize is the biggest anomaly in Central America. Among the seven Central American countries, Belize has the smallest population, with only about 400,000 people. Belize’s territory is located entirely along the Caribbean coast and was formerly a British colony known as British Honduras prior to independence; consequently, the common language is English. In all other countries in the region, the official language is Spanish.

As a former British colony, Belize’s demographic structure is also distinctly different. The local population was historically dominated by Caribbean Creoles, indigenous Mayans, and the mixed-race Garifuna people, though in recent years there has been a large influx of Mestizos from neighboring countries. Additionally, Belize has immigrant communities from other parts of the British Empire, including Indians, forming a sharp contrast with surrounding nations.

In the next post, I will start recounting my travel experiences from Chetumal to Belize: Central America Travelogue (Part 3): Chetumal.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-2/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Central America Travelogue (Part 1): About Central America

Tue, 11 Nov 2025 21:20:00 -0800

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-1/ -

Why Visit Central America

Central America is not a region typically visited by tourists.

Compared to North and South America, Central America has a low profile, yet it often appears in news reports involving coups, drug trafficking, gangs, and disasters. Opening a map, Central America is a narrow and fragmented territory, densely packed with seven small countries. Within this not-so-large region, Central America blends heterogeneous cultures such as Mayan, Spanish, and Caribbean.

Even for Americans, it is a distant and unfamiliar territory. In US news, Central America frequently involves immigration issues. Among the illegal immigrant population in the United States, people from Central America account for a considerable proportion. It is estimated that there may be over 2 million illegal immigrants from Central America, accounting for more than one-fifth of all illegal immigrants. Their numbers are vast, and they are accustomed to organizing based on family and hometown ties, often pushing them to the forefront of public opinion. Republican conservatives frequently emphasize that gang organizations from Central America have infiltrated the United States; using this as a pretext, some politicians even stigmatize all Central Americans, and indeed the entire Latin American community, as gang members and drug traffickers.

What exactly is Central America like? With this curiosity, I have traveled to this region multiple times over the past few years to personally explore the unique charm of this land.

Traveling to Central America is not easy. The first obstacle is psychological; checking various violent crime rankings, locations in Central America frequently top the lists, so going to such a region inevitably requires overcoming fear. Secondly, for Chinese citizens, visas for Central American countries are also a major hassle, mainly stemming from the political wrestling between mainland China and the other side of the strait. Small Central American countries often vacillate between the Republic of China (Taiwan) and the People’s Republic of China. Third, tourism infrastructure in most parts of Central America is relatively poor, and travel is not easy, especially without proficiency in Spanish. For these reasons, doing thorough research before heading to Central America became an essential task.

What is Central America

Which places actually count as Central America? In Chinese, “中美洲” generally corresponds to the English “Central America,” which is a geographical concept. At the same time, there is a culturally significant Central America, known in English as “Mesoamerica.”

Geographical Central America

Geographical Central America refers to the land located between North America and South America. Although we now consider the Panama Canal as the boundary between North and South, such a division is actually imaginary. Central America is a transitional zone connecting North and South America, and its scope can be divided into three levels based on different standards:

Central America in the narrow sense: Usually refers to the four countries of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, which constitute the core region of Central America.

Central America in the general sense: In addition to the core four countries, this includes Costa Rica, Panama, and Belize. These seven countries usually constitute Central America in the modern geopolitical sense.

Central America in the broad sense: Based on cultural and historical reasons, some states in southern Mexico are occasionally included in the scope of Central America. Even the island nations of the Caribbean Sea are sometimes included.

Cultural Central America

Cultural Central America includes Mesoamerica. “Meso-” is a Greek root meaning “between.” Mesoamerica is a historical and archaeological concept, typically encompassing the region between southern Mexico and Nicaragua. This area gave birth to glorious American civilizations such as the Olmec, Maya, and Aztec. Mesoamerica shares common cultural characteristics, such as pyramid architecture, hieroglyphic writing and calendar systems, as well as similar agricultural and religious customs.

Due to the differing histories, politics, economies, and populations of the various countries, today’s Central America can no longer be generalized by the historical Mesoamerican civilizations.

A History of Fragmentation

The history of Central America is intricate; it has been a meeting point for the succession and evolution of different civilizations since ancient times. This land nurtured glorious ancient civilizations but also experienced multiple rises and falls, affected by natural disasters, climate change, and other unknown factors. This led to many cities and cultural centers being suddenly abandoned after centuries of prosperity, only to be redeveloped centuries later. Such cyclical rises and falls are extremely common in Central American history. For example, archaeologists often find that a site might have been built around 1000 BC, inhabited for a few hundred years, then suddenly abandoned, and subsequently reoccupied and developed by another civilization centuries later. This history repeats itself, showing that the evolution of civilization on this land was not a linear development but rather characterized by fractures and revivals.

After Columbus sailed to the Americas, the Spanish Empire began to establish colonial rule in the Americas, attempting to build a complete administrative system—New Spain. However, this process was not smooth in Central America because Central America was never a region of a single culture or unified regime, but rather composed of numerous different ethnic groups and civilizations. When the Spanish attempted to forcibly rule this land, they encountered fierce resistance from various local groups. Unlike the Inca Empire in South America and the Aztec Empire in North America, the political map of Central America was more dispersed, with Maya city-states, Aztec vassal states, and local noble forces each governing themselves. This made it impossible for the Spanish to completely control the region through a single decisive war. Therefore, Central America did not have legendary conquerors like Cortés and Pizarro.

Geography, Climate, and Population

If one carefully observes the geography and population distribution of Central America today, one will discover the diversity of this land—mountains, valleys, plateaus, active volcanoes, tropical rainforests, and coastal plains along two oceans. The terrain is intricate, with interwoven microclimates. This fragmented geography resulted in loose connections between different regions. Consequently, Central America did not integrate into a single political entity in history. Even after centuries of Spanish rule, effective communication between regions remained difficult, maintaining a high degree of regional cultural difference.

“West High, East Low” Population Density

Observing the population density map of Central America reveals an interesting phenomenon: although Central America is geographically a continuous landmass, the distribution of the population is extremely unbalanced. The population density on the west coast of Central America, the Pacific coast, is far higher than that on the east coast, the Caribbean coast.

Due to its higher elevation and relatively drier climate, the Pacific coast of Central America has been suitable for agricultural development since ancient times and was home to many ancient agricultural civilizations. During the Spanish colonial period, this became the main area for settlers to live and develop the economy. The level of urbanization is high, forming the densely populated pattern seen today. Many major cities are located here, including Guatemala City, San Salvador, Tegucigalpa, Managua, San José, and Panama City.

Conversely, the Caribbean coast is dominated by tropical rainforests; the terrain is low-lying and rugged, and the climate is hot and humid. This makes large-scale agriculture and urban development relatively difficult, so the population remains relatively sparse to this day. In some coastal zones, there are vast, almost uninhabited areas, especially around Cabo Gracias a Dios and the Mosquito Coast. The largest city in this region is San Pedro Sula in Honduras, which started with large banana plantations. Apart from that, there are no other large cities.

Mestizos and Garifuna

The differences in Central American countries and population density are accompanied by the distribution of different races. The people of Central America are not all the mixed-blood descendants of Indians and Europeans that many stereotype them to be; rather, it is a more complex mixture of mixed-race people, pure indigenous people, and Caribbean blacks.

In the more populous West, the main residents are Mestizos, the mixed-race descendants of indigenous people and Spanish colonizers. In addition, some areas still retain a large number of descendants of pure Spaniards, as well as indigenous groups that have not merged with Spanish culture. For example, the Maya descendants in Guatemala still speak Mayan languages and preserve many traditional cultures. The primary language of Mestizos is Spanish, inherited as the official language of the New Spain colony. Catholic missionaries contributed significantly to the popularization of Spanish.

In the sparsely populated East, the local racial composition is more diverse. In addition to the indigenous people of the rainforest, there are large groups with West African ancestry here, originating from the transatlantic slave trade. Black slaves were initially sold to the islands of the Caribbean Sea and subsequently trafficked to plantations along the Caribbean coast of Central America. They gradually mixed with local indigenous people, forming a unique ethnic group—the Garifuna. The Garifuna have their own language—Garifuna, which is an indigenous language. Since most Garifuna live in Spanish-speaking countries, most also speak Spanish.

In the next post, I will recount the situation in the various Central American countries: Central America Travelogue (Part 2): Islands on Land

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/central-america-1/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Wandering in Japan: Tohoku History Museum

Sun, 09 Nov 2025 22:17:00 -0800

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-touhoku-museum/ -

Preface: After more than three years, I finally restored the site generator. This article was written in October 2021 as part of my journey “Wandering in Japan” in the Tohoku region.

Tohoku History Museum

Departing from Sendai, a train ride of just over ten minutes brings you to Kokufu-Tagajō Station (Provincial Capital Tagajō Station) on the Tohoku Main Line. The name of this station is derived from the ancient place name “Tagajō” (Tagajo Castle), the “Kokufu” (Provincial Capital) of Mutsu Province (Mutsu-no-kuni) during the Nara period. Exiting from the south gate of the station, the Tohoku History Museum is just a minute’s walk away. The Tohoku History Museum is quite large, with very rich permanent exhibits showcasing archeological remains and historical materials from various eras, ranging from the Stone Age all the way to modern times. The surroundings of the museum are beautiful; it was just the beginning of autumn, and the rain was falling incessantly.

Ancient Tohoku

The archeological history of the Tohoku region in Japan can be traced back to the Paleolithic era, roughly over ten thousand years ago. At that time, it was the Last Glacial Period; the climate was cold, and the sea level was much lower than it is now, so the Japanese archipelago was connected to the Asian continent. The average temperature in Sendai was 7 degrees Celsius lower than today, equivalent to the current climate of northeastern Hokkaido. After the Last Glacial Period, when Japan entered the Jōmon period, temperatures rose significantly, and the sea level became higher than it is today. This period of history is called the “Jōmon Transgression” (Jōmon Kai-shin) era. Following the Jōmon period, a large number of Shell Mounds (Kaizuka) were discovered centering on the Sendai Plain, which are displayed in the museum. Shell mounds are trash heaps formed by humans consuming large quantities of shellfish and discarding the shells. The discovery of shell mounds indicates that large-scale settlements of Jōmon people began to form. A distinct feature of Japanese Jōmon culture is sedentary hunting and gathering, which challenges the traditional anthropological assumption that “agriculture is a necessary condition for settlement.” Later, with the development of archeology, more and more sedentary hunting-gathering cultures similar to the Jōmon culture were discovered; their common point was a superior natural environment. Chiba, Ibaraki, and Miyagi prefectures in Japan are where the most shell mounds have been found, indicating that the Jōmon culture lasted the longest there.

The museum then displays Tohoku during the Yayoi period. Western Honshu and Kyushu entered the Yayoi period first, around the 4th to 5th centuries BCE. The Yayoi period is a landmark event in Japanese history, during which “Toraijin” (people from across the sea) brought advanced farming techniques from the continent by boat to Japan, gradually assimilating the Jōmon people. In the 3rd century BCE, the earliest rice cultivation in Tohoku was discovered at the Sunazawa Site in Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture. This indicates that within a century, Yayoi people expanded from Kyushu to northern Honshu. Based on other archeological findings and molecular anthropological evidence, agriculture in Japan may have moved north along the Sea of Japan side before gradually spreading to the Pacific side. In other words, compared to the Kanto Plain, which seemingly looks more suitable for agriculture, Tohoku entered the agricultural age earlier.

Yamato Kingship and Tagajō

In the late 3rd century, western Japan entered the Kofun period (Tumulus period). In Tohoku, the hallmark Keyhole-shaped Kofun (Zenpō-kōen-fun) and Haniwa (terracotta clay figures) began to appear in the latter half of the 4th century. Additionally, pottery manufacturing techniques evolved from the indigenous Haji ware to Sue ware, which was introduced from the Korean Peninsula. During the Kofun period, Japan’s interaction with the continent increased significantly. The Sannō Site in Tagajō yielded bronze mirrors from the 5th century and oracle bones. The usage of these oracle bones is similar to the oracle bones of the the Yin Ruins (Yinxu), involving drilling holes before applying heat to crack them. This oracle bone is quite interesting because the 5th century was already the Northern and Southern Dynasties period in China, more than a thousand years after the Shang (Yin) Dynasty, so it is unknown how the technique was passed down. However, in the late Kofun period, Keyhole-shaped Kofun suddenly disappeared from northern Tohoku. Current research suggests this was likely due to climate cooling between the 4th and 6th centuries, causing agrarian civilization to retreat southward.

In the latter half of the 7th century, the Yamato Kingship finally expanded into Tohoku. “Jōsaku” (fortified government offices) began to appear in various places in Tohoku, which were known as Mutsu Province and Dewa Province. A Jōsaku was a military colonial facility where the Yamato court’s army and officials were stationed. Finally, in the 8th century, in 724 (Jinki Year 1), the Provincial Capital of Mutsu, Tagajō, was officially built. Tagajō was a fortress with walls on flat land, unlike the mountain castles common in the later Sengoku period of Japan. Similar to the square cities of the Chinese mainland, it had gates opening in the east, west, and south directions, with the government office (Seichō) in the center of the castle.

Tagajō is located not far from the museum. Originally, I planned to visit it in person, but the wind and rain were too strong that day, and the original site might have been flooded, so I had to give up.

To the southeast outside of Tagajō, the Tagajō Abandoned Temple (Tagajō-haiji) still exists, named Kanzeon-ji (Temple of Avalokiteśvara). The layout of the Tagajō Abandoned Temple conforms perfectly to the temple layout of the Nara period. Its structure consists of a West Golden Hall, an East Pagoda, and a North Lecture Hall, similar to Hokki-ji in Nara. Furthermore, referring to “Kanzeon” instead of “Kannon” or “Kanjizai” is also a characteristic of early Chinese Buddhism before the Tang Dynasty.

The Tagajō Monument

The most important artifact of Tagajō is the Tagajō Monument (Tagajō-hi), one of the Three Ancient Monuments of Japan, carved in 762 when Tagajō was rebuilt. By the way, there are actually four “Three Ancient Monuments of Japan”: the Tagajō Monument, the Tago Monument, the Nasu-no-Kuninomiyatsuko Monument, and the Ujibashi Monument. Fortunately, the museum exhibited a replica of the Tagajō Monument. The content of the inscription is as follows:

Tagajō Distance to the Capital: 1,500 ri Distance to the border of Emishi country: 120 ri Distance to the border of Hitachi Province: 412 ri Distance to the border of Shimotsuke Province: 274 ri Distance to the border of Mohe Kingdom: 3,000 ri This castle was established in the first year of Jinki, the year of Wood-Rat, by the Azechi and Chinju Shogun, Junior Fourth Rank Upper, Fourth Order of Merit, Ōno no Asom Azumabito. It was repaired in the sixth year of Tenpyō-hōji, the year of Water-Tiger, by the Sangi, Tōkaitōsan Setsudoshi, Minister of the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Azechi, and Chinju Shogun, Fujiwara no Emi no Asom Asakari. December 1st, Sixth Year of Tenpyō-hōji.

The first half of the inscription records the location of Tagajō. The distances are quite accurate, and the statement “Distance to the border of Mohe Kingdom (Makkatsu-koku): 3,000 ri” is particularly striking. This “Mohe Kingdom” is the Bohai Kingdom (Parhae) more commonly seen in historical records. When I visited Kinowano-saku in Sakata, Dewa Province (Wandering in Japan: Sapporo and Sakata), I also saw records of the Bohai Kingdom sending envoys to Japan in 727, showing how close the diplomatic relations were between Japan and the Bohai Kingdom at that time.

The second half of the inscription records the construction time of Tagajō (First Year of Jinki) and the builder (Ōno no Asom Azumabito, i.e., Ōno no Azumabito), as well as the repair time (Sixth Year of Tenpyō-hōji) and the repairer (Fujiwara no Emi no Asom Asakari, i.e., Fujiwara no Asakari).

From Mutsu Province to Dewa Province

The museum also introduces that in 737 (9th Year of Tenpyō), Ōno no Azumabito, the builder of Tagajō, opened a road from Mutsu Province to Dewa Province. This was also a milestone event in the colonial history of the Yamato Kingship, marking the extension of the Yamato Kingship’s influence from the coast on both sides to the inland areas. The two frontier Ritsuryō provinces of Japan’s Tohoku, Mutsu Province and Dewa Province, were both located in mountainous areas, so the military colonization on both sides moved north along the coastline. The original writing of Mutsu Province (Michinoku) was “Michinoku-no-kuni” (道奧國), found in the Kojiki, which originally meant the road was rugged and deep.

Tohoku Since the Middle Ages

The next part of the exhibition hall is Medieval Tohoku. An important symbol is the rise of the Northern Fujiwara (Ōshū Fujiwara) clan. After the 11th century, the power of the Yamato court gradually declined, and the Emperor became a figurehead. The officials of the former Ritsuryō provinces slowly developed into local powerful clans, and the Northern Fujiwara clan was a major powerful family centered in Hiraizumi, Mutsu Province. By the early 12th century, Hiraizumi had developed into a metropolis, its prosperity once said to be second only to Heian-kyō (Kyoto). However, all this ended with the Battle of Oshu. According to the records of Azuma Kagami, Shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo, who established the Kamakura Shogunate, captured Hiraizumi and unified the country. Although the Northern Fujiwara clan ceased to exist, many Buddhist temples remain to this day and are now registered as World Cultural Heritage sites. These temples were built according to the worldview of the Pure Land sect (Jōdo-shū) introduced to Japan during the Northern Song Dynasty, including Chūson-ji, Mōtsū-ji, and Kanjizaiō-in. I had specifically visited Hiraizumi once before and was deeply impressed.

After the Kamakura period, Japan gradually moved towards the Sengoku period (Warring States period) of warlord separatism. From the 14th to the 16th centuries, many mountain castles (Yamajiro) appeared in Tohoku as in other places. These mountain castles were military fortresses built by local daimyo forces, not for living, unlike the later flatland castles (Hirajiro) and flatland-mountain castles (Hirayamajiro). Further on was the Edo period, where the Tohoku region was ruled by various domains (Han) and entered a period of relative peace. The theme of the Edo period shifted from war to the daimyo’s Sankin-kōtai (alternate attendance) and rising trade. The western and eastern routes of the Kitamaebune (northern-bound ships) turned Sakata and Ishinomaki into trade centers respectively. During this period, like in China and Korea, Buddhism was replaced by Neo-Confucianism (Cheng-Zhu school, Lu-Wang school) as the culture favored by the samurai class, and each domain established domain schools (Hankō). Like all historical museums in Japan, the last part of the exhibition is the Meiji Restoration and the Boshin War, as well as the subsequent “Civilization and Enlightenment” (Bunmei Kaika).

The Frontier of Yamato Civilization

In conclusion, perhaps due to personal interest, I think the most worth-seeing part of this museum is the early Japanese history from the Jōmon period to the early Heian period, because Mutsu Province at that time still belonged to the frontier zone of Yamato civilization and had not yet completed “Yamato-ization”. Looking at the density of the Ritsuryō province divisions in the Nara period, it is easy to find that Japan from northern Kyushu to the Kanto Plain was covered by dense Ritsuryō provinces, while the vast Tohoku only had two undefined frontier lines: Mutsu Province and Dewa Province. Although Ritsuryō provinces were called “countries” (kuni), they were closer to the commanderies and counties of China’s unified dynasties, while the “Han” (domains) born after the decline of kingship in later generations were more like the feudal states of pre-Qin China. Where the Ritsuryō provinces reached was where the Yamato Kingship reached, so it can be inferred that the east-west cultural integration of Japan at that time was nearing completion. From the repeated advance and retreat of the farming line in the Kofun period to the war between the Seii Taishōgun (General who Subdues the Barbarians) and the Emishi, it reflects the difficulty of expansion across climate zones. The Tohoku dialects, which are the most complex and difficult to understand in Japanese, also reveal this heterogeneity. Moreover, hunter groups like the “Matagi” who did not engage in farming existed in Tohoku until modern times. In fact, Japan did not completely assimilate Tohoku until the Meiji Restoration, after incorporating Hokkaido and even Karafuto (Sakhalin) and Chishima (Kuril Islands) into its territory.

The history of Japan’s Tohoku is a history of the Yamato people expanding northward; this is where the uniqueness of Japan’s Tohoku lies.

Tagajō Abandoned Temple

Walking out of the history museum, the wind and rain were still strong. Helplessly, I gave up on seeing the Tagajō ruins. However, I braved the rain and ran to the nearby ruins of the Tagajō Abandoned Temple. Although there are no buildings above ground at this site, the underground structure is relatively complete, with foundations for the Golden Hall, Buddhist Pagoda, and Lecture Hall, and pillar base stones can still be seen on the foundations.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-touhoku-museum/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Wandering in Japan: Kinpusen-ji, the Southern Court, and the Osaka Expo

Tue, 10 May 2022 23:12:00 -0700

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-ohosaka-yoshino/ -

Written in February 2021. Spring in Japan always arrives quietly; the temperature rises significantly all at once, and then before long, a cold wave strikes suddenly, returning everything to winter. My trip this time took place on just such a weekend. It was also from that day on that I started suffering from allergies for the first time in my life, and even now, I am still battling inexplicable allergies. Thinking back now to the days when I never had allergies, it truly feels like a lifetime ago. I dedicate this article to commemorating this watershed moment.

A Random Destination

Since the beginning of 2021, I hadn’t left home for a long time and was getting a bit restless. As it happened, some Japan Airlines miles were about to expire, so I used Dokokani Mile (Where to Mile) to try my luck. “Dokokani Mile” is a special way to redeem miles on Japan Airlines; for just 6,000 points, you can get a round-trip ticket to a random destination. When booking, you first select the dates and time slots, and then four possible locations appear. After paying the miles and waiting a few days, Japan Airlines reveals the destination. According to Murphy’s Law, the selected destination is often the one you least want to go to. This time was an exception; my randomly selected destination was Osaka. I don’t know how many times I’ve been to Osaka, but I look forward to it every time I finish a trip there. After all, with Osaka as the hub, Kansai is the center of Japanese history and culture, with countless places to visit.

Dotonbori Without Tourists

After arriving at Osaka Itami Airport on Friday night, I first went to the Shinsaibashi (心齋橋) and Dotonbori (道頓堀) area. I didn’t have a specific destination; I just wanted to see how the streets, once occupied by tourists from all over the world, looked now. Sure enough, the Shinsaibashi shopping arcade was very empty, many shops had closed down, and the words “Tax Free” on huge signboards were broken. Dotonbori was much the same; a few shops were still operating bleakly, despite the scarcity of customers.

That night I stayed at the grand bathhouse in Shinsekai (新世界), which has dedicated guest rooms. This bathhouse is the largest I have visited in Japan, featuring bathing styles from various countries. It is the bathhouse I recommend most; it is worth a try for anyone coming to Osaka.

Kinpusen-ji

The next morning, I walked from the Shinsekai bathhouse to Kintetsu Abenobashi (阿部野橋) Station and took the limited express train to Yoshino (吉野). Yoshino is located south of Nara City, somewhat distant from Osaka; the direct train takes 1 hour and 15 minutes.

Yoshino is very famous during the cherry blossom season, but coming in this season, I obviously wasn’t there for the flowers, but to visit the famous Kinpusen-ji (金峯山寺). Kinpusen-ji is located in the Yoshino River (Kinokawa) valley at the southernmost edge of the Nara Basin. Further south lie the rugged mountains of Kumano.

Kinpusen-ji is a representative of Japanese Shinbutsu-shugo (syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism). The principal deity worshipped is Zao Gongen (藏王權現). Zao Gongen does not come from Indian or Chinese Buddhism but is an object of faith born from Japanese indigenous Buddhism. The term Gongen refers to the manifestation of a Buddha (in Mahayana Buddhism). After the concept of Gongen was introduced to Japan, it was localized, implying that the Yaoyorozu no Kami (Eight Million Gods) of Shinto are all manifestations of various Buddhas. This theory is known as Honji Suijaku (本地垂蹟). For example, the Honji Suijaku theory holds that Amaterasu (天照大神) is the manifestation of Dainichi Nyorai (大日如來, Mahavairocana). After the Meiji Restoration, out of nationalism, the Honji Suijaku theory was thoroughly denied by the new government. With the promulgation of the “Kami and Buddhas Separation Order” (Shinbutsu Hanzenrei), Buddhism suffered unprecedented suppression, to the extent that syncretic temples are now rare.

Visiting Buddhist temples in Japan, compared to China, often feels “purer”. By pure, I mean the deities and bodhisattvas enshrined in the temples are all from Mahayana Buddhism (of course, Mahayana, especially Esoteric Buddhism itself, mixed in quite a few Brahmanic or even Zoroastrian gods, but that’s another topic). In many temples in China, one often encounters gods from Taoism and traditional Chinese folk beliefs mixed in, such as Guan Yu, the God of Wealth, and Mazu. This is precisely the result of Japan’s separation of Shinto and Buddhism over a hundred years ago, making Japanese Buddhism more “fundamentalist”. Of course, there are many exceptions, and Kinpusen-ji, which I visited today, retains a large amount of syncretic elements.

Coming out of Yoshino Station, there is still quite a hike up the mountain, but there is a ropeway available. The ropeway takes only 3 minutes to reach the mountainside; to reach Kinpusen-ji, you still have to walk a bit. The first thing you see is the Kuromon (Black Gate), which is the first mountain gate.

Continuing for ten minutes, you reach the second mountain gate, named Hosshinmon (發心門). Although it is called Hosshinmon (Gate of Awakening to Faith), it is clearly a copper Torii (鳥居). The Torii is an important structure in Shinto; according to Shinto, passing through a Torii means entering the divine realm. Being both a Torii and a mountain gate shows that gods and Buddhas are one entity here, not yet separated.

The final gate is the most spectacular Niomon (仁王門). The Niomon was under repair and could not be viewed up close, but its magnificent aura could be felt from a distance.

Bypassing the Niomon, you enter the main area of Kinpusen-ji. The main building of Kinpusen is a huge Buddha hall named “Zao-do” (藏王堂). Zao-do is very majestic, featuring a double-eaved hip-and-gable roof (Mokoshi-tsuki Irimoya-zukuri), and the roof material is Japan’s unique cypress bark (Hiwadabuki). Zao-do enshrines the principal deity Zao Gongen, but it is not usually shown to the public. The principal Buddha is only unveiled for worship on special days (Gokaicho). This is also one of the characteristics of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism, mainly found in temples of the Shingon and Tendai sects, though exoteric sects like Jodo and Zen occasionally have “Secret Buddhas” (Hibutsu) as well. Entering the hall, you can see other Buddhas surrounding the area, including a statue of Zao Gongen. The statue glares with wide-open eyes, resembling Fudo Myoo (Acala). Aside from this, there are not many traces of Shinto left inside the great hall.

The Zao Gongen enshrined at Kinpusen-ji is the principal deity of Japanese Shugendo (修驗道), appearing in the form of a Wisdom King (Myoo). Shugendo is an ancient tradition of mountain asceticism inherited from Buddhism, also known as Aranya (forest) practice. The original meaning of Aranya is forest, which later extended to mean a temple, so some temples or practice grounds are also called “jungles” (Conglin).

In the Nara period, the ascetic En no Ozunu (役小角), while practicing at Kinpusen-ji, founded Shugendo inspired by the manifestation of “Zao Gongen,” a fusion of Shakyamuni Buddha, Avalokitesvara (Kannon), and Maitreya (Miroku). Shugendo later merged into Japanese Esoteric Buddhism, deeply influenced by the Shingon and Tendai sects. To this day, the Kumano mountains in southern Nara remain a training ground for Shugendo. Shugendo can be described as the most localized branch of Buddhism in Japan.

The Yoshino Court

Not far below the terrace where Zao-do stands is the “Yoshino Imperial Palace Site,” where a three-story octagonal pagoda named “Nancho Myohoden” (Southern Court Myoho Hall) stands. According to the information board, this was once the site of the Southern Court’s Imperial Palace, where Emperor Go-Daigo (後醍醐天皇) of the Nanboku-cho period (Northern and Southern Courts period) based himself to oppose the Northern Court controlled by the Ashikaga Shogunate.

Yoshino has historically been the location of imperial villas, but its highlight moment was at the end of the Kamakura period. At that time, Emperor Go-Daigo fled Heian-kyo (Kyoto) carrying the “Three Sacred Treasures” symbolizing Yamato sovereignty and divine right, exiled himself to the Yoshino palace, and established the Southern Court to stand against the Ashikaga Shogunate’s Northern Court, initiating the half-century-long Nanboku-cho period. Because the base was in Yoshino, the Southern Court is also called the Yoshino Court. The distance from Yoshino to Kyoto is actually less than 100 kilometers, which cannot be compared to the Northern and Southern Dynasties in China at all. Using China as a reference, it is truly inconceivable that the small Kinai plain could accommodate two courts confronting each other for fifty-seven years. Even after the fall of the Southern Court, its remnants (the Later Southern Court) continued to resist the shogunate until the Sengoku period in the late 15th century. However, during the Meiji Emperor’s reign, history was revised, and the Southern Court was finally designated as legitimate.

Walking south from Kinpusen-ji for a few minutes, you reach another legendary imperial palace, now named Yoshimizu Shrine (吉水神社). This unassuming shrine has a shoin (study hall) with a significant background. According to its explanation, the Yoshimizu Shrine Shoin was originally Yoshimizu-in, a monk’s quarter of Kinpusen-ji, which was converted into a shrine after the separation of Shinto and Buddhism. Yoshimizu-in claims to be the oldest shoin in Japan, dating back to the Hakuho period (7th century). However, I am skeptical of this claim because, according to scientific verification (dendrochronology), the East Pagoda of Yakushi-ji in Nara is the only existing building from the Hakuho period.

The Yoshimizu Shrine brochure also states that Minamoto no Yoshitsune (源義經) and his beloved mistress Shizuka Gozen (靜御前) hid at Yoshimizu-in during the late Heian period. Later, Emperor Go-Daigo also used this place as a palace, and this building is the only existing palace of the Southern Court. Later in the Sengoku period, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豐臣秀吉) held a flower-viewing banquet in Yoshino and stayed at Yoshimizu-in for several days. The exhibits in Yoshimizu Shrine include various rare treasures, such as Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s bronze bell (dotaku) and gold folding screen, Emperor Go-Daigo’s biwa (lute), Ikkyu’s calligraphy, and a letter from Tokugawa Mitsukuni of Mito. Because it is so exaggerated, I hardly dare to believe it is true; it feels like there might be some forced associations.

After leaving Yoshimizu Shrine, I went down the mountain the way I came. Although there are other shrines and temples deeper in the mountains, and the Miyataki ruins at the foot of the mountain (said to be an imperial palace from the Asuka period), I did not visit the other palace sites of the Yoshino Court this time due to inconvenient transportation.

Koriyama Castle

I took the Kintetsu train back to Kashiharajingu-mae, and next, I had to transfer to the Kintetsu Kashihara Line to go to Koriyama. During the transfer, I spent ten minutes quickly finishing lunch inside the station. Many stations in Japan have small cafeterias inside, which are very suitable for a quick meal.

Getting off at Kintetsu Koriyama Station and walking for 10 minutes, I arrived at Koriyama Castle (郡山城). Koriyama Castle is not particularly famous, but in the Kinki region (Kansai), Japanese-style castles are relatively rare. This is because Kinki was not the sphere of influence of Daimyos (feudal lords) but was always directly ruled by the “Court,” similar to the royal domain of Luoyi in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. In 1580, Tsutsui Junkei built a castle here. This was the only castle in Yamato Province at the time. As the direct sphere of influence of the Emperor and court nobles, it was only when they declined to insignificance that they could tolerate feudal lords (warrior families) building castles here. Not much of Koriyama Castle remains, only a reconstructed gate, a moat, and the tenshudai (keep base). Climbing the tenshudai, you can overlook the surrounding plains.

Koriyama Castle and its surroundings are now a park. I happened to encounter plum blossoms in full bloom; the scenery was enchanting.

Osaka Port

After admiring the plum blossoms at Koriyama Castle, half the afternoon had passed. I started to return to Osaka, taking the opportunity to ride railway lines I hadn’t used before. I took the Kintetsu Kashihara Line to Tawaramoto (田原本), then sprinted out of the station to Nishi-Tawaramoto (西田原本) about a hundred meters away. Although both stations belong to Kintetsu Railway, they are not connected. Even worse, the transfer time was only three minutes; otherwise, I would have to wait an extra half hour. I don’t know why the timetable is arranged like this; maybe almost no one transfers here.

I got on the train departing from Nishi-Tawaramoto, and in just over twenty minutes, I reached the terminus, Shin-Oji Station. Walking two hundred meters from the Shin-Oji exit is another Kintetsu station, Oji, which is also unconnected, and the transfer time was only four minutes—impossible without running. After catching the train, I could finally rest. After transferring again at Ikoma, I rode all the way to the terminus at Osaka Port, Cosmo Square (コスモスクエア). This is a place built on reclaimed land, with a scenic seaside park and many high-rise residential buildings nearby. Departing from the same station, there is an automated guideway transit (AGT) line, which is particularly suitable for sightseeing. The style here is very similar to Odaiba in Tokyo.

The name “Cosmo Square” is very characteristic of its era; names of this style were common during Japan’s bubble era at the end of the Showa period. At that time, the Japanese people’s confidence was sky-high, as if the Earth could no longer contain Japan, leaving only the exploration of the cosmos and the future.

Before sunset, I arrived at Suminoekoen Station. There is an Osaka Gokoku Shrine (大阪護國神社) here. Gokoku Shrine basically means Yasukuni Shrine, except only the head shrine in Tokyo can be called “Yasukuni” (Peaceful Country), while others are “Gokoku” (Protecting the Country). Cities large and small across Japan have a Gokoku Shrine; these are remnants of pre-war State Shinto, places to summon the spirits of and memorialize soldiers who died before the defeat of the Empire.

The most prominent features of Gokoku Shrines are their huge bronze or stone Torii gates and various cenotaphs (memorial monuments).

The cenotaphs come in all shapes and sizes, some shaped like artillery shells, and there is even a “Monument to Beloved Horses,” truly a living fossil of militarism.

Osaka Expo Commemorative Park

Early the next morning, I left my accommodation and headed straight for the Expo Commemorative Park in northern Osaka. Osaka hosted the World Expo in 1970, known in Japan as the “Bankoku Hakurankai” (Expo of Ten Thousand Countries), and the venue has been preserved to this day as the Expo Commemorative Park. The park is enormous; you could spend a whole day there. I entered from the East Gate early in the morning and walked for a long time before reaching the central area. The park still retains the landmark Tower of the Sun (太陽之塔) from that time; it is still a popular photo spot, and the busiest place in the park.

Steel Pavilion Museum

This huge park was once crowded with pavilions from countries all over the world, but now they have all been demolished, leaving only the Steel Pavilion, which is used as the Expo ‘70 Pavilion museum to commemorate that unprecedented gathering in 1970. Paying to enter the museum, I found it unexpectedly good. The museum has numerous exhibits, almost all items intentionally preserved from that time, such as admission tickets, display boards, and advertisements from back then. There are also some very interesting statistics, such as 48,139 lost children in the venue, 55 weddings, 1 birth, 2,755 toilet stalls, etc.

As one of the two major events of Japan’s economic boom era, the Osaka Expo, like the Tokyo Olympics, created much history. For example, it was the first World Expo where the organizer made a profit. Among the hundreds of pavilions from 77 participating countries, the tallest and most popular building was the Soviet Union Pavilion; 1970 happened to be when the Soviet Union was at its peak in that era.

Osaka is about to host the World Expo again in 2025. After the fiasco of the Tokyo Olympics, I’m afraid no one believes this Expo can recreate the glory of the past. The two successful events half a century ago were not the cause of stimulating Japan’s economic development, but rather the result of that booming era. Now Japanese society is permeated with a sense of failure; unless people’s confidence can be reversed, I fear this will leave the Japanese economy bleak for a long time.

Japanese Garden

The Japanese Garden in the northern part of the park has also been preserved, but I was somewhat disappointed after visiting it. This garden might be nice for someone who hasn’t seen many Japanese gardens because it has a little bit of every style of garden element, but nothing stands out. However, it separates gardens of different Japanese eras; perhaps it’s not bad if viewed as a history museum of gardens.

National Museum of Ethnology

Another highlight within the park is the National Museum of Ethnology. I initially thought it might be a Japanese folklore museum or a museum of the Japanese people, but I was surprised to find it contains various different cultures and peoples from around the world. The exhibition halls are arranged by continent. For each ethnic group, various cultures and customs are covered. The exhibits are carefully selected, distinctive yet unconventional, and of a very high standard. Another commendable point is that it keeps pace with the times, with a section specifically displaying immigrant groups in Japan in recent years.

Nakayama Kannon

Starting in the afternoon, I suddenly developed symptoms of allergic rhinitis. Suspecting it was caused by pollen in the Expo Park, I left quickly.

I took the Hankyu Line to Nakayama-kannon Station in Takarazuka City to visit Nakayamadera (中山寺). Nakayamadera belongs to the Shingon sect, follows Esoteric Buddhism, and its principal deity is the Eleven-faced Kannon. The principal Kannon is a “Secret Buddha” and is not usually open to the public. Nakayamadera claims to be a Kannon sacred site established by Prince Shotoku, but the existing buildings can only be traced back to the Sengoku period.

There are many sub-temples within Nakayamadera, each enshrining different Buddhas of the ten directions and heavenly bodhisattvas. Among them is “Seiju-in” (Achievement Hall), which enshrines Kokuzo Bosatsu (Akasagarbha Bodhisattva). Kokuzo is one of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas of Mahayana Buddhism, in charge of the Great Elements (mahābhūta) and the Void Realm (ākāśa-dhātu). Praying to Kokuzo Bosatsu can grant boundless memory, which is very suitable for East Asian-style exams. Compared to praying to Manjushri (Monju), who represents great wisdom, praying to Kokuzo Bosatsu is straightforward. If one truly obtained great wisdom from Manjushri, one might just see through the hyper-competitive nature of exams without actually helping with the exam itself. It’s better to pray to Kokuzo Bosatsu to directly gain infinite memory, delivering a strike from a higher dimension against the exam. Nakayamadera understands this well, writing “Pass Entrance Exam” and “Academic Achievement” on Kokuzo Bosatsu’s signboards.

There is a blue five-story pagoda in Nakayamadera with a unique style. Because of its color, it is named “Seiryuto” (Blue Dragon Pagoda). Although one cannot enter this pagoda, one can understand the internal mandala from the outside. Inside the pagoda are the Five Wisdom Buddhas of the Diamond Realm (Vajradhatu), with Mahavairocana Buddha (Dainichi Nyorai) in the center, Akshobhya in the East, Amitabha in the West, Ratnasambhava in the South, and Amoghasiddhi in the North.

From a close distance, the color of this five-story pagoda is particularly vivid, with very high contrast; looking at it for too long can even make your eyes uncomfortable.

In the afternoon, my allergic rhinitis began to worsen, so I had to end the trip and return to Tokyo. Unexpectedly, allergic rhinitis would accompany me from then on.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-ohosaka-yoshino/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Wandering in Japan: Sapporo and Sakata

Fri, 15 Oct 2021 00:28:00 +0900

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-sapporo-sakata/ -

Time rewinds to late August 2020. I arrived in Hokkaido again, even though I had just visited once in early July. This time, I was merely passing through Hokkaido; or to be precise, I was specifically “passing through.” This was because I had spent another 5,500 United Airlines miles to redeem a ticket from Tokyo Haneda to Sapporo and then to Niigata. The departure time was Saturday morning from Tokyo to Sapporo, and then from Sapporo to Niigata in the evening. By using this method, I could travel across Japan at the lowest possible cost.

A Not-So-Smooth Departure

Although I had set my alarm for 6:30, I suddenly woke up at 6:20 on Saturday morning. I don’t know why, but I often wake up abruptly a few minutes before my set alarm goes off. As long as I set an alarm, I will wake up even if it doesn’t ring, but if I forget to set it, I will truly oversleep. I find this phenomenon hard to explain.

I originally planned to take the direct bus from Shibuya (澀谷) to Haneda Airport, but after stepping out, I suddenly felt like it had been a while since I took the Yamanote Line, so I changed my mind and went to the train station. The area around Shibuya Station is undergoing the largest “redevelopment project” in its history, so the station’s structure changes every so often. Because I accidentally went to the wrong platform at Shibuya Station, I missed a train and didn’t arrive at the airport until 7:45 AM. The first leg of the flight was with Air Do. Air Do does not have its own check-in counters but is handled by All Nippon Airways (ANA). I entered my ticket number at the ANA self-check-in kiosk but found no information, so I had to go to the manned counter. The counter staff also checked for a long time and even called a supervisor before finally managing to print the boarding pass. It seems very few people redeem Air Do flights using foreign airline mileage, so their automatic ticketing system cannot handle it smoothly. By this time, there were less than fifteen minutes left until takeoff, but taking domestic flights in Japan is generally not an issue, especially with the significant decrease in travelers. I quickly walked to the boarding gate and finally successfully boarded an old Boeing 767; the interior decoration looked like a style from twenty years ago. Such old planes are rare in Japan now, so encountering one to experience it was lucky. Unfortunately, the good times didn’t last. The plane began to taxi, and just as I was preparing to rest, the captain’s voice came over the broadcast apologizing. Although the Japanese was spoken very quickly and I didn’t completely understand it, I sensed the situation might be bad. Sure enough, a few minutes later, the plane returned to the boarding gate. This time the flight attendant made an announcement, and I finally understood that it was a mechanical failure and the flight was canceled.

Back at the boarding gate, hundreds of people formed a long line waiting to rebook. I fell to the end of the line. Realizing I couldn’t just wait idly—otherwise, I didn’t know if there would be any tickets left for today by the time it was my turn—I picked up my phone and called United Airlines directly. In recent months, United’s customer service line has been particularly easy to get through, likely due to fewer passengers, and the customer service team seems not to have undergone massive layoffs. The United agent initially said they didn’t see the flight cancellation information in the system, but they still readily rebooked me on the earliest next ANA flight, taking off in half an hour at 10:00 AM. However, the United agent told me I still had to print the boarding pass at the airport, so I had to continue queuing. By the time it was my turn, it was already 9:45, but the staff said I could only be rebooked on the 10:45 flight. I firmly disagreed, and although they kept apologizing verbally, it was of no use. Even though the people ahead of me in line had all rebooked for the 10:45 flight, I insisted that United had already rebooked me. Seeing my firm attitude, the ground staff took me directly to the gate for the 10:00 departure, where the ANA staff quickly printed my boarding pass. My experience with service industry personnel in Japan who apologize profusely but don’t solve the problem is to be firm, argue on reasonable grounds, yet remain polite; this way, you won’t be easily fobbed off.

Muroran Main Line

The plane arrived at New Chitose Airport (新千歲機場) at 11:30, two hours later than scheduled. Since my next flight to Niigata was at 7:30 PM, I decided to change my route and take a train halfway around Sapporo. The route was: from New Chitose Airport to Minami-Chitose, transfer to the Chitose Line to Tomakomai (苫小牧), then transfer to the Muroran Main Line (室蘭本線) to Iwamizawa (巖見澤), and finally transfer to the Hakodate Main Line (函館本線) back to Sapporo. Taking the Muroran Main Line train from Tomakomai to Iwamizawa was my main objective because this section of the railway is already on the list of high-risk lines for abolition. Given the high maintenance costs and low passenger numbers, JR Hokkaido is likely to announce the abolition of this section in the future. Although officially abolishing a section of railway requires a long consultation process, if an earthquake or flood disaster occurs one day, JR Hokkaido can “suspend operations indefinitely” and then choose a time to permanently abolish it later. Just like the Hidaka Main Line (日高本線), which was officially abolished in 2021, it had actually been suspended due to a disaster since 2015.

The railway line from Tomakomai to Iwamizawa runs through plains, with boundless fields on both sides of the train windows. Such scenery is completely different from the three main islands of Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu). In the few plain areas on the mainland, the population density is very high, almost entirely towns, and fields only appear in patches in mountain valleys. The scenery of fields in the valleys is also beautiful, but it feels very different from the endless expanse of Hokkaido. Of course, compared to the field scenery of the American Midwest or Ukraine, Hokkaido is still not quite as grand.

On the way, I encountered a station named “Hayakita” (早來 - literally “come early”). Does this mean one should come to see it early, otherwise, it won’t be seen after the line is abolished?

The train on this section of the Muroran Main Line had only one car, but surprisingly, it was quite full. Several passengers were carrying cameras and tripods, appearing to be there for the experience just like me. The train did not travel slowly, but there were many stops along the way, taking an hour and a half for a journey of less than one hundred kilometers. Many of the intermediate stations did not look small, suggesting that quite a few people must have used them in the past. Japan is truly facing a severe problem of population outflow everywhere except Tokyo and Okinawa. It is predicted that after 2025, even Tokyo will begin to see a population decline, leaving only Okinawa. When the Ryukyu King Sho Tai (尚泰) saw his kingdom destroyed, he probably never dreamed that Japan would see such a day.

Cool Sapporo

Iwamizawa is considered a satellite city of Sapporo, and one can tell from the station facilities that there are quite a few people during commute times. I didn’t stay long in Iwamizawa and switched to the Hakodate Main Line to return to Sapporo. The scenery on this section of the railway from Iwamizawa to Sapporo was also nice, but there were significantly more people. Although I have been to Hokkaido many times, this was only my second time entering downtown Sapporo. While most of Honshu was enveloped in a severe heatwave these days, with temperatures exceeding 40 degrees Celsius alongside high humidity in many places, Sapporo remained pleasantly cool. Walking out of Sapporo Station, the brilliant afternoon sun shone straight down from the cloudless blue sky, accompanied by gusts of cool wind, reminding me of cool summer days in Northern Europe.

Japan never shies away from saying that Sapporo is a colonial city, and there are many memorials to the “pioneering era” throughout Hokkaido. A landmark in the center of Sapporo is the “Former Hokkaido Government Office” (Red Brick Office), a Neo-Baroque building constructed in 1888 that incorporates Japanese decorative elements. I really like such “Japanese-Western Eclectic” (和洋折衷) style architecture from the Meiji and Taisho eras and make it a point to visit them in every city.

Leaving the government office, I walked all the way to Odori Park (大通公園). This is the central axis of Sapporo, built as a belt-shaped park. Escaping the heatwave of Tokyo to avoid the summer heat in a park in Sapporo is exactly the kind of summer I like. Why isn’t Japan’s capital in Hokkaido? If it were, I would be more willing to live there; Sapporo’s climate is much more livable than Tokyo’s. The humid and hot summer in most parts of Japan, including Tokyo, is the season I dread the most.

Before World War II, Japan had multiple ideas about moving the capital, but at that time, the Empire’s ambitions didn’t stop at Hokkaido; Keijo (Seoul) in Korea, Xinjing in Manchukuo, and even Peiping (Beijing) were considered. The Empire’s greed ultimately caused it to lose all colonies except for Hokkaido and Ryukyu. As the most successful Japanese colony, Hokkaido is truly Japan’s “Treasure Island”; without Hokkaido, Japan would be very different.

At the western end of Odori Park is the Sapporo City Archive Museum, a building in the Official Bureau style. The archives are free to visit, containing several exhibition halls that briefly introduce the history of Sapporo. This building used to be the Sapporo Court of Appeals.

Since I had to take a flight to continue to Niigata at 7:00 PM, I returned to New Chitose Airport after a short stay. Compared to when I came in early July, there were now significantly more people in the airport.

Niigata Airport

The flight to Niigata was on a small Bombardier Q400 propeller plane, with only a dozen or so passengers on board, which is the norm for regional flights in Japan. If not bought with airline miles, such flights are usually very expensive, costing at least 30,000 yen. Arriving at Niigata Airport (新潟機場), it was already nearly nine o’clock; this was the last flight. It seemed that everyone else either drove themselves or had someone pick them up, leaving only me preparing to take the bus to the city center. Apart from me, inside the huge airport hall, there was only one staff member sitting lonely inside the information center counter. I went to ask for the bus schedule, and she patiently explained the time, boarding location, fare, and the time required to reach Niigata Station. Throughout Japan, information services for travelers are very professional and polite, a point worth learning by the whole world. After waiting for a few minutes, there was still only me, but the bus departed on time. I was even a bit curious: if there wasn’t a single person, would this bus, which has no other stops in between, still depart?

Uetsu Main Line

After spending a simple night in Niigata, I continued directly north along the Uetsu Main Line (羽越本線), with my destination being Sakata (酒田). There is a limited express train “Inaho” (Ear of Rice) from Niigata to Sakata, and I had purchased a ticket with a 50% discount in advance on the JR East website. Major Japanese railway companies have been suffering comprehensive losses recently, launching significant discount tickets to salvage losses. As the train name suggests, the scenery outside the window on the way from Niigata to Sakata was full of rice paddies, with the sea on the other side, appearing very beautiful. The coastal plains on the Sea of Japan side have been Japan’s rice granary since ancient times because the climate here is very different from the Pacific side, especially with abundant snowfall in winter. However, the summer here is as humid and hot as the Pacific coast, and going out for a stroll in this weather is almost like an ascetic practice.

Sakata

More than an hour later, the train arrived at Sakata. Sakata is located at the mouth of the Mogami River (最上川) and historically was a vital route between the Yamagata interior and the coast, famous for its developed rice trade. Sakata was an important port for the Kitamaebune (北前船 - Northern Bound Ships) during the Edo period, leaving behind many ruins. Although the population is now severely draining away, one can still get a glimpse of the grandeur of that time through these ruins.

Sakata City Museum

I walked from the train station to the Sakata City Museum in the city center to learn about the local history on the spot. The museum has two floors; the lower floor had a special exhibition on the women of Sakata, while the second floor housed the permanent exhibition. The exhibition hall was small, introducing Sakata from ancient times to the present.

The oldest civilization ruin near Sakata is the Kinowasaku (城輪柵) from the Nara period, discovered archaeologically in 1931. Kinowasaku was a frontline base for the Yamato court’s expedition against the Emishi (蝦夷) and was also the provincial capital of Dewa Province (出羽國) in the late Nara period. The early frontline of Dewa Province was near Akita, its exact location unknown, but later moved south to here due to the Emishi rebellion and the difficulty of radiating control. Japan’s subsequent “Seii Taishogun” (征夷大將軍 - Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians) primarily conquered the Emishi of Dewa Province. The Tohoku region of Japan was the last place on Honshu island to be assimilated, thus retaining some unique culture, which is especially reflected in the Tohoku dialect, considered difficult to understand by other Japanese people. However, historically, the Emishi of Tohoku were different from the Ainu culture of Hokkaido, although the Ainu were also called Emishi in modern times. The Emishi were not entirely equivalent to the Jomon people; like the Yamato people, they also had Yayoi lineage and wet-rice agriculture. The Emishi were eventually assimilated around the 10th century, fully merging into the Yamato people (大和民族).

The museum also mentioned that in 727 AD, the Kingdom of Bohai (渤海國 / Parhae) sent envoys to Japan for the first time. The Shoku Nihongi records that the Bohai ambassador Gao Renyi (高仁義) landed in Dewa Province but was attacked by the Emishi, with only eight people surviving. These eight successfully met the general stationed in Dewa Province and ultimately fulfilled their mission, arriving in Heijo-kyo (Nara) to have an audience with the Emperor. This opened a mutual envoy relationship between Japan and Bohai that lasted for three hundred years. The trade and exchange between the “Flourishing Kingdom of the East” (Bohai) and Japan continued ceaselessly thereafter, with rich historical records. The provincial capital of Dewa visited by this group back then was likely Kinowasaku. Besides this place, I had previously seen the landing site of the 778 AD Bohai envoy Zhang Xianshou at Mikuni Port. Bohai existed from the 8th to the 10th century AD before disappearing into the long river of history. Its mysterious history, unique agricultural culture, and economic structure have always fascinated me. according to historical climatology research, the 7th to 10th centuries were a warm period on the East Asian continent, corresponding to the golden ages of China’s Tang and Northern Song dynasties, which also pushed the frontier of agricultural civilization north to Bohai. The sudden drop in temperature after the 10th century doomed Bohai, and agricultural civilization would not advance here again until the late 19th century. The late development of Northeast China, to the extent that it was expanded upon by Russia, cannot be entirely blamed on the Qing Dynasty’s border ban preventing Han people from flowing into the “Land of the Dragon’s Rise.” The climatic conditions and technological levels before the 19th century destined large-scale agricultural development to be unrealistic.

I didn’t have time to visit Kinowasaku in person this time, leaving it as a reason to visit again in the future. Additionally, the museum narrated later history, including the rule of the Shonai Domain (莊內藩), all the way to the modern era and post-war period. If one wants to understand local history, history museums and archives across Japan are excellent places to go.

Honma Family

Leaving the museum, I continued to wander the streets of Sakata. Perhaps because the weather was too hot, the streets were almost empty, but fortunately, various attractions had begun to open. I walked to the “Honma Family Old Residence” (本間家本邸) to visit the residence of the Honma family, the largest wealthy merchant locally. The Honma clan was a powerful family in Sado Province (佐渡國) since the Kamakura period, and the Honma clan in Sakata was a branch of the Sado Honma clan, owning vast amounts of land in Sakata. Later, the Honma family operated Kitamaebune trade during the Edo period, at one time possessing financial power no less than that of the Mitsui and Sumitomo families. During the Boshin War (to overthrow the Shogunate), the Honma clan supported the Shogunate and faced liquidation after the war, required to pay huge reparations, but they remained the largest zaibatsu in Sakata, contributing significantly to Sakata’s modernization. It wasn’t until after World War II that the land reform led by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers thoroughly hollowed out the Honma family’s assets.

Now, the Honma Family Old Residence is open to the public as a museum, where entering allows a glimpse into the life of the wealthy back then.

The Honma family’s legacy in Sakata also includes the Honma Museum of Art, which opened in Showa 22 (1947) and was later donated to society by the Honma family, becoming a public interest organization.

Sankyo Warehouses

Sakata City’s signature architecture is the Sankyo Warehouses (山居倉庫) built at the confluence of the Mogami River and the Niida River. These are rice granaries built during Japan’s modernization period; nine traditional white-walled earthen storehouses could hold 10,800 tons of rice. In 1893, the Sakai family, daimyos of the Shonai Domain, built this huge warehouse complex to promote trade.

The Sankyo Warehouses are long past being used as rice granaries; they are now a sightseeing spot and a filming location for many movies and TV shows.

Part of the Sankyo Warehouses has been converted into the “Shonai Rice History Museum,” introducing the history, production, storage, and distribution of Shonai rice. Before the Edo period, although Dewa Province was already a rice-producing area, the development of its potential had to wait for the opening of the Kitamaebune Western Sea Route (西迴航路). In 1672 (Kanbun 12), Kawamura Zuiken (河村瑞賢), a merchant for the Edo Shogunate, successfully pioneered a maritime trade route starting from the Mogami River, entering the sea at Sakata, sailing southwest along Japan to Shimonoseki, then along the Seto Inland Sea to Osaka, and finally around the Kii Peninsula to arrive in Edo. Although the distance seemed far, the transport cost was reduced by at least an order of magnitude compared to traversing mountains. Although the Eastern Sea Route, going north up the Tsugaru Strait and then along the Pacific to Edo, had been pioneered by others decades earlier, the Western Sea Route was safer, more reliable, and had more ports along the way.

Sakata has many other places to see, such as the Maiko teahouse “Somaro,” but it was not open due to the COVID pandemic. Additionally, near Sakata, there is the Shonai Domain school Chidokan, as well as the Three Mountains of Dewa. I can visit Sakata again next time to see them.

Rikuu West Line

After leaving Sakata, I headed east along the Rikuu West Line (陸羽西線), following the Mogami River, and arrived in Shinjo (新莊) over an hour later. Shinjo is the junction of the Rikuu Line and the Ou Main Line (奧羽本線). To the east is the Rikuu East Line, ending near Sendai. Interestingly, both names Rikuu and Ou are portmanteaus of Mutsu Province (陸奧國 - Rikuoku) and Dewa Province (出羽國 - Dewa); Rikuu Line runs east-west, while Ou Line runs north-south.

The Rikuu West Line is a non-electrified single track, with river valley scenery all along the way, flanked by typical Japanese countryside.

Approaching Shinjo, the Rikuu West Line merges with the Ou Main Line, and one can see a garage with a century of history.

Shinjo is the starting point of the Yamagata Shinkansen (山形新幹線). This Shinkansen is called a Mini-Shinkansen because its roadbed was not built according to standard Shinkansen specifications; instead, it utilized the existing Ou Main Line (conventional line), simply changing the track gauge to standard gauge (1435 mm). On the platform at Shinjo, one can see the scene of Ou Main Line local trains and the Shinkansen side by side.

Shinjo

Although I had also bought a Yamagata Shinkansen ticket back to Tokyo, the starting station was Yamagata, and I planned to take the Ou Main Line local train for the section from Shinjo to Yamagata. Since the next local train wouldn’t depart for another hour, I decided to visit Shinjo’s city center.

Unsurprisingly, Shinjo is also a small city with massive population outflow. The once most prosperous “Shinjo Ichibangai” (First Street) in the city center was empty, with most shops closed and those persisting having very few customers.

After walking for twenty minutes, I finally reached the ruins of Shinjo Castle (新莊城). The castle is long gone, leaving only the moat, with the Tozawa Shrine (戶澤神社) in the center. Next to the castle ruins is a small history museum containing an introduction to the history of Shinjo Castle and various relics.

After a brief look, I walked back to Shinjo Station and discovered that the building adjacent to Shinjo Station is called the “Mogami River Wide Area Exchange Center.” This exchange center is a civic center, a public facility similar to a library, containing facilities like meeting halls, very different from the dilapidated city center outside. The combination of such decay and newness in Japanese small towns always makes it hard for me to believe it is the same place.

Yamagata

After arriving in Yamagata (山形) by the Ou Main Line train, there was still an hour before the Shinkansen back to Tokyo, so I planned to go out for another stroll. A fifteen-minute walk away is Yamagata Castle (山形城), which is much better preserved than Shinjo Castle. Yamagata Castle was started by the Mogami clan in 1357 and later underwent centuries of maintenance and expansion. Yamagata Castle is a flatland castle (Hirajiro), quite different from most Japanese castles built on mountains with a central tenshu (keep). Since I arrived too late, I couldn’t enter for a visit, so I just walked around the outer moat.

Finally, I took the Yamagata Shinkansen train and returned to Tokyo accompanied by the evening glow. The Yamagata Shinkansen follows the tracks of the Ou Main Line until Fukushima, then merges onto the Tohoku Shinkansen to begin traveling at full speed.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-sapporo-sakata/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Wandering in Japan: Northern Immortal Islands Part 2

Sat, 14 Aug 2021 10:23:00 +0900

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-rebun-rishiri-2/ -

Continued from Northern Immortal Islands Part 1.

Maritime Fuji: Rishiri

After having lunch on Rebun Island, I boarded the ferry to Rishiri.

Somewhat unexpectedly, there were no seats on the ship, only Washitsu (Japanese-style rooms). A Washitsu generally refers to a room with tatami mats, but sometimes thin carpets are also considered Washitsu. The rule for Washitsu is that you must take off your shoes before entering, and it is best to wear socks, otherwise it is considered uncouth. The floor of the Washitsu was very clean; everyone sat on the floor, and some people lay down to sleep. This style of cabin is becoming rare in Japan.

The ship sailed for less than an hour before arriving at Rishiri Island. Looking out at the sea ahead during the journey, I could see Rishiri Fuji gradually becoming clear. Mount Rishiri, at an altitude of 1,721 meters, is a perfect cone-shaped volcano, hence it is called Rishiri Fuji.

There were not many tourists on the island yet, and many hotels were still closed. However, the Hotel North (Hokugoku Grand Hotel), which I was lucky enough to book, had opened some countryside cottages at a price much cheaper than usual.

After dropping off my luggage, I set off towards Mount Rishiri. Of course, I didn’t plan to climb the mountain, but just intended to walk around the foot of the mountain, aiming only for the Kanrosensui (Sweet Dew Spring Water) at the 3rd station. There is a road from Rishirifuji Town, about 4 kilometers away with an elevation gain of 200 meters. I walked for over an hour, passing a campsite along the way.

At the campsite, I noticed that “portable toilets” were being sold and collected. Many places in Japan require climbers to bring their waste back down the mountain and forbid relieving oneself just anywhere on the mountain. I don’t know how strictly Japanese people adhere to this rule, but it’s really hard to imagine in other countries. Before entering the hiking trail, I also found a shoe washing station intended to prevent foreign seeds from being brought into the mountain.

After trekking for more than ten minutes from the campsite, I finally arrived at the Kanrosensui. The spring water gushed out from the rock wall, cold and clear, and the taste was indeed somewhat sweet. This Kanrosensui is also one of Japan’s “100 Famous Waters”.

Kanrosensui marks the 3rd station (Sangome) of Mount Rishiri (there are ten stations in total). Walking further would mean truly starting the mountain climb. If one wants to climb the mountain, they must set out very early in the morning to return the same day, so I turned back from here.

Returning to Rishirifuji Town, I passed an onsen (hot spring) facility. Having walked 8 kilometers round trip, I was a bit tired, so naturally, I wanted to bathe and rest. As part of daily life for Japanese people, the price of onsens is not expensive—only 500 yen—and most patrons are locals. There was an open-air bath with excellent scenery where one could enjoy the cool breeze and beauty of the forest.

When I came out of the onsen, it was already evening. Before the sun set, I climbed Cape Peshi (Peshi-misaki). This name is obviously Ainu; otherwise, it wouldn’t start with a “p”. The climbing path up the cape was very steep and accompanied by strong winds. There is a small platform halfway up the mountain where grave markers of Aizu Domain samurai stand, commemorating the Aizu warriors stationed here during the Edo period.

In 1807, on the eve of Japan opening up to the world, Russia intended to send troops to Hokkaido to open Japan’s doors for trade using gunboats. At that time, the Edo Shogunate ordered the Aizu Domain to garrison the northern territories, so more than 200 retainers arrived on Rishiri Island. Although no actual conflict with Russia broke out, poor nutritional conditions and the bitter cold claimed many lives, and some of the survivors suffered shipwrecks on their way home. Russia ultimately failed to expand southward and surely could not have imagined that a hundred years later, facing a rising Japanese Empire, they would suffer a crushing defeat.

I struggled to climb to the top, where the view was unparalleled, but the wind was so strong I couldn’t stand up straight and could only crouch behind a rock to look.

After descending the mountain, the sun was about to set, and the afterglow made Rishiri Fuji look even more beautiful.

Waking up the next morning, the sunshine was exceptionally bright. The hotel delivered breakfast early in the morning, which was Japanese-style Kamameshi (kettle rice).

I set off after enjoying breakfast. The plan for the day was to rent a car and drive around the island. Renting a car on Rishiri Island is also expensive, but cheaper than Rebun, mainly because there are more competitors. The total price for a 5-hour rental with a drop-off at the airport was 9,500 yen. The car was a Kei car (light automobile) unique to Japan. This price is about twice as expensive as on the Hokkaido mainland.

Starting the drive, I first went to a small mountain pond called Himenuma (Princess Pond). The feature here is the ability to photograph the inverted reflection of Rishiri Fuji in the water, but the premise is that the sky must be particularly clear and the water still. Regrettably, I didn’t see the reflection, but walking around the lake was still refreshing.

The weather was sunny that day, and the seaside scenery was also very beautiful.

Although Rishiri Island is not large, there are two museums on the island, both introducing local natural history and folklore. I learned in these two museums that the colonization of Rebun and Rishiri began in the Meiji era, and the influx of population did not end until after World War II. Because this is the confluence of the Tsushima Warm Current and the Liman Cold Current, there are large fishing grounds nearby, attracting a large number of fishermen to catch fish here. Although the latitude of the two islands is high, the winter climate is relatively mild, making it very suitable for settlement. The population of Rishiri Island peaked at 11,234 after WWII (Source), and has been declining since, with less than 3,000 people in 2020. Until the 1990s, there was even a ferry from Otaru connecting Rishiri and Rebun.

Although Rishiri and Rebun are not far apart, their climates and vegetation are significantly different. Rishiri’s vegetation is dominated by trees, while Rebun is basically grassland. This is also caused by ocean currents; the warm current is stronger around Rishiri, while the cold current is stronger around Rebun.

On the Hokkaido mainland, one often sees signs warning “Beware of Bears”. Although there are no bears on Rishiri Island, there have been multiple instances of bears crossing the sea to get there. Despite Rishiri being separated from Hokkaido by at least 20 kilometers of ocean, bears can actually swim across!

Both Rishiri and Rebun come from the Ainu language, meaning “High Island” and “Island on the opposite side of the sea”. Many place names in Hokkaido come from the Ainu language, especially the many words starting with the “ra” (ら) row, which indicates they are not Wago (native Japanese words). A common feature of Japanese and Korean is that the liquid sounds /l/ and /r/ cannot be the beginning of a word. So, if you see a Japanese word starting with the “ra” row, you can almost judge that it is not Wago. South Korean goes a step further, where even the consonants of all Sino-Korean words starting with /l/ are dropped (North Korea does not drop them). Japanese has a similar phenomenon appearing in individual Wago-ized words, such as “sulfur” being read as “iou” (instead of riou). The L sound holds a certain exotic appeal in the minds of Japanese people; legend has it that the brand Lululemon was named specifically to create a “foreign feel” for the Japanese.

At noon, I arrived at Kutsugata Port in the southwest of Rishiri Island, where I had lunch and bought the most famous local specialty, Rishiri Kelp (Konbu). Sea urchin (Uni) is also a famous local specialty; it is considered a delicacy in Japan and is expensive. Interestingly, when the Japanese first colonized Rishiri a hundred years ago and cultivated kelp here, they treated sea urchins as a pest that destroyed kelp and removed them on a large scale.

Finally, I returned to Rishiri Airport, completing the loop around the island. On this small island, the scenery of Rishiri Airport can be described as open, because you can take in the entire view of Rishiri Fuji behind the runway. I was taking an All Nippon Airways (ANA) flight from Rishiri to Sapporo New Chitose. I saw a Boeing 737 parked on the runway, which is only 1,800 meters long. While waiting in the lobby, I also noticed several pilots taking photos together on the runway; it seems that not everyone gets to fly this route.

The takeoff process was very special and a bit thrilling. Before boarding the plane, I felt a very strong crosswind, making it difficult even to walk. Unlike standard takeoff procedures, the engines of this Boeing 737 were revved up before the taxi/takeoff roll began. The plane initially remained motionless while the engines spun furiously, creating a huge noise, and the entire airframe vibrated violently. Immediately afterward, the plane suddenly accelerated and lifted off the ground within a few seconds. After takeoff, the climb rate was very fast, followed by a sharp turn in the air. It seems that taking off and landing at this airport with a short runway, complex terrain, frequent fog, and severe crosswinds is really not an easy task. The plane was less than 30% full; I wonder why ANA uses a Boeing 737. Could it be for pilot training?

Not long after, I could overlook the panorama of Rishiri Island from the window.

Switzerland of Hokkaido: Lake Shikotsu and Lake Toya

After an hour, the plane landed smoothly at New Chitose Airport. Tonight, I would drive to Lake Shikotsu and Lake Toya.

Renting a car on the Hokkaido mainland is truly much cheaper; including insurance, it was less than 3,000 yen a day. Lake Shikotsu is only about a 30-minute drive from Chitose.

When I arrived at Lake Shikotsu, it was exactly the moment when the afternoon sun was most brilliant. The lakeside scenery was beautiful, and the water was crystal clear. Walking by the lake, I had a momentary illusion of being on the shores of Lake Geneva (Lac Léman) in Switzerland. There is a visitor center by the lake featuring exhibits on the nature of Lake Shikotsu, and next to it is a railway museum commemorating the Oji Paper railway. There are many onsen hotels around Lake Shikotsu, attracting a large number of vacationers.

Leaving Lake Shikotsu, I continued to Lake Toya, about an hour’s drive away. Lake Toya is more famous than Lake Shikotsu and usually has many tourists, especially tour groups. I arrived at the lakeside just before sunset. The clear lake water looked exceptionally bright under the setting sun, and in the distance, Mount Yotei was shrouded in the mist rising from the lake. Dinner was at a Western-style restaurant called Boyotei; this restaurant has exquisite decoration, an elegant environment, and is a century-old shop.

After dinner, the sun had already set, and there was twilight on the horizon. I returned to the lakeside to admire Lake Toya shrouded in the dusk.

That night I stayed at an onsen hotel called Yutorelo Toyako. Because it was a weekday, coupled with a promotion, the price was particularly cheap and included a hearty breakfast.

Near Lake Toya is an active volcano called Mount Usu. This volcano erupted in 2000, destroying some houses. After breakfast, I went to the ruins to investigate. However, I only saw a closure notice at the entrance because bears had recently been spotted inside.

People often sight bears in the mountains and forests of Japan, so many places have numerous signs warning “Beware of Bears”. Although bears generally do not actively attack humans, their destructive power is astonishing once provoked. Even with so many bears, news of people being killed by bears is rare, yet the cautious Japanese paste such warnings everywhere. Perhaps this helps people stay as far away from bears as possible; after all, facing humans, bears are the truly vulnerable party.

Hastily saying goodbye to Lake Toya, I drove back to New Chitose Airport along the expressway. It is about 120 kilometers from Toya to Chitose, taking less than an hour and a half to drive. The expressway toll was not cheap; even with ETC, it deducted 3,200 yen.

A Glimpse of Kyoto

The next leg of the journey was flying from New Chitose Airport to Osaka Itami Airport, with an expected stopover of 7 hours, before flying back to Tokyo Haneda. The reason for this route was that I used United Airlines miles to redeem an ANA ticket from Rishiri to Tokyo. Due to mileage ticket seat restrictions, I couldn’t fly directly from New Chitose to Tokyo Haneda. So, I decided to stay overnight at Lake Toya and take a quick look at Kyoto. In reality, there were not many people on the plane; ANA would really rather fly empty planes than release more mileage tickets.

The plane arrived at Osaka Itami Airport at noon. I took the Osaka Monorail to transfer to the Keihan Railway, going straight to Karasuma in downtown Kyoto, and then transferred to the subway to reach Keage Station. Next to Keage Station is the tunnel entrance of the Lake Biwa Canal. The Lake Biwa Canal is a Western-style canal engineering project that bored through the Higashiyama mountains to divert water from Lake Biwa to Kyoto. There is also a section of Roman-style elevated aqueduct called Suirokaku. Completed in 1890, the Lake Biwa Canal not only solved Kyoto’s drinking water problem but also utilized the height difference for power generation, as Lake Biwa’s altitude is higher than Kyoto’s ground level.

Near Keage Station, there is a remnant of an incline railway, which was once used to transport boats. Boats in Kyoto’s water network were lifted to Keage, entered the tunnel from here, and could sail directly to Lake Biwa. Now, this railway is a tourist attraction, with cherry blossoms blooming in spring.

Walking a short distance along the Suirokaku leads to Nanzen-ji; a part of the aqueduct even passes through the temple grounds. Nanzen-ji is one of the many great temples in Kyoto and is the head temple of the Nanzen-ji branch of the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism. This temple was built in the Kamakura period in 1291. At that time, China was under the rule of Kublai Khan of the Great Yuan Empire. After two failed expeditions to Japan, many Southern Song immigrants fled to Japan, bringing fresh blood to Japanese culture. Since Nanzen-ji was built at the behest of the Emperor, it ranks above the “Kyoto Gozan” (Five Mountains of Kyoto) of the Rinzai school, making it the highest temple of Japanese Zen Buddhism.

The main sights of Nanzen-ji are the Sanmon, the Hojo (Abbot’s Quarters), and Nanzen-in. The Sanmon, also known as the Mountain Gate, is a huge purely wooden structure with a multi-eaved Irimoya-zukuri (hip-and-gable) roof. You can climb up the Sanmon to overlook the entire Nanzen-ji.

Since the Japanese words for “three” (san) and “mountain” (san) are homophones, Sanmon is often confused with Mountain Gate. A Mountain Gate, as the name suggests, is the gate to enter the mountain and is generally the first gate of a temple. However, Sanmon is an abbreviation for “Three Vehicles Gate” or “Three Liberation Gates” (San-gedatsu-mon). “Three Vehicles Gate” refers to the three vehicles of Sravaka, Pratyekabuddha, and Bodhisattva, through which one can attain the status of Arhat, Pratyekabuddha, and the supreme enlightened Buddha respectively. The theory of “Three Liberation Gates” comes from the Yogacarabhumi Sastra of the Yogachara school of Mahayana Buddhism, referring to the “Empty Liberation Gate,” “Signless Liberation Gate,” and “Wishless Liberation Gate.”

The Nanzen-ji Hojo is the main residence of the head priest and contains several Karesansui (dry landscape) gardens. The most famous is its garden, and it is said that the scenery during the autumn foliage season is breathtakingly beautiful.

Unknowingly, I spent an afternoon at Nanzen-ji and didn’t come out until it closed at five o’clock. I didn’t have time to visit Tenju-an within the temple or the nearby Eikan-do (Zenrin-ji) of the Jodo school, so I’ll have to come back later. There is a Nanchan Temple (Nanzen-ji) of the same name in Mount Wutai, Shanxi, China. The main hall of that Nanchan Temple was built in the Tang Dynasty in 782 AD and is the oldest existing wooden structure in China. I hope to visit it in person one day.

After slowly touring Nanzen-ji, it was already evening. I was willing to make a special trip to Kyoto just to see Nanzen-ji, and there are dozens of such places around Kyoto. It is truly fortunate that Kyoto was not destroyed by war.

I returned to Osaka Airport in the evening and flew back to Tokyo, bringing this short but fulfilling itinerary to an end.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-rebun-rishiri-2/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Wandering in Japan: Northern Immortal Islands Part 1

Tue, 22 Jun 2021 21:53:00 +0900

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-rebun-rishiri-1/ -

Since late March 2020, I had been practicing “Jishuku” (self-restraint) at home. After staying dormant for several months, early July 2020 arrived in the blink of an eye, and I embarked on a new journey. I spent a total of five days visiting Wakkanai (稚內), the northernmost point of Japan, and two nearby remote islands: Rebun (禮文) and Rishiri (利尻). Afterward, I visited Lake Shikotsu (支笏湖) and Lake Toya (洞爺湖) near Sapporo (札幌), and finally stopped by Kyoto (京都).

The itinerary involved two flight tickets: Tokyo Haneda-Sapporo-Wakkanai, and Rishiri-Sapporo-Osaka-Tokyo. Both were All Nippon Airways (ANA) tickets redeemed using United Airlines mileage. Each ticket cost only 5,000 miles with zero taxes and fees. If purchased directly from ANA, the price would likely have exceeded 50,000 yen. Domestic flights in Japan might be the most cost-effective way to redeem United Airlines miles.

New Chitose Airport

Since the flight was scheduled for 7:00 AM, I woke up shortly after 5:00 AM and took the airport bus from Shibuya directly to Haneda. Because the traffic volume was far less than before, I arrived at Haneda Airport in less than thirty minutes. Like my previous trip to Wajima, Haneda Airport remained somewhat deserted; even though it was already July, nearly half of the flights were still canceled.

The plane took off on time. The number of passengers onboard was not insignificant; about 70% of the seats were occupied. Although the number of infections had dropped at one point, the pandemic was far from over. However, the tourism industry had passed its darkest days, even though the Japanese government’s “Go To Travel” subsidy campaign hadn’t started yet. In my opinion, locking down cities worldwide is not a long-term solution for pandemic prevention; the ultimate outcome can only be successfully achieving coexistence with the virus. Before reaching this outcome, some deaths are inevitable, but humanity will be better prepared for such disasters in the future. After all, the disasters potentially triggered by future climate change will likely be far greater than this, so we might as well treat this pandemic as a drill.

Over an hour later, the plane landed at New Chitose Airport (新千歲機場) in Sapporo. There were very few travelers inside the airport, and many shops hadn’t opened yet. I managed to find an open restaurant to eat breakfast, and just as I was preparing to board, I discovered that the flight to Wakkanai had been delayed until noon. Suddenly having several extra hours, I took the opportunity to explore the airport thoroughly. New Chitose Airport has excellent facilities and diverse functions. In addition to various food and souvenir shops, there is also a cinema and an open-air hot spring (onsen). In terms of airport facilities, Japan and Western European countries are the richest; they can even attract people to visit specifically without flying. Airports in the United States and China appear slightly dull and singular by comparison; one generally wouldn’t go there without a reason. There is an area on the third floor of the airport that introduces the history of New Chitose Airport, starting from the pre-WWII Chitose Airfield up to the current “New” Chitose Airport.

After a delay of an hour and a half, boarding finally began. During this time, everyone waited quietly. Although the hour-and-a-half delay was announced early on, airport staff made announcements every twenty minutes or so to explain the specific situation, including the reason for the delay, the current location of the replacement aircraft, and when it would arrive. It was evident that under the premise of transparent information, passenger tolerance significantly improved—this wasn’t just due to the high civility of the Japanese people, but more importantly, timely communication. What surprised and touched me the most was that upon boarding, ANA compensated every passenger with 1,000 yen in cash, placed in an envelope. Upon opening the envelope, any remaining dissatisfaction I had instantly dissolved. ANA’s good service is indeed reflected in the details, treating every traveler as a long-term customer to cultivate. At the same time, the operating costs of Japan’s two major airlines (ANA and Japan Airlines) have remained high, with cost per passenger-mile ranking among the highest in the world, which is out of step with the global trend of low-cost competition among airlines. I wonder if ANA can sustain this business strategy of high prices and high standards.

Cape Soya and Sarobetsu

After arriving at Wakkanai Airport, it was already past noon. The airport now only has two flights a day, so the staff basically only work during these times. After collecting my luggage, the staff from Nippon Rent-A-Car were already waiting at the exit.

After picking up the car, I immediately headed to Cape Soya (宗谷岬), the northernmost point of Japan. I had been here once three years ago during my first trip to Hokkaido. Back then, I joined a half-day sightseeing tour booked in Wakkanai. Seeing it again this time, it felt even more deserted. However, the weather was exceptionally good that afternoon, with visibility of several tens of kilometers. Standing at Cape Soya, I could see Sakhalin (Karafuto/樺太) across the strait. However, some might disagree with the claim that Cape Soya is Japan’s northernmost point because the northern tip of Iturup (Etorofu/擇捉島), one of the Northern Territories claimed by Japan, is at a higher latitude, though it is currently under actual Russian occupation.

Continuing south along the Sea of Okhotsk, I passed a place called Sarufutsu Village (猿拂村). By the sea, there is a stone monument commemorating the landing point of the former undersea cable connecting Hokkaido and Karafuto. The text on the monument commemorates the “Nine Maidens” (九人乙女), and reading between the lines reveals the pain of losing one’s country and home. according to the explanatory text, the “Nine Maidens” were nine women who “committed suicide for their country” at the post office in Maoka (Holmsk) on Karafuto on August 20, 1945. This was already several days after Japan had announced its surrender, but the Soviet offensive remained brutal, so they became the final sacrifice of militarism. Today, the memorial tablets of these nine women are in the Yasukuni Shrine (靖國神社) in Tokyo. On the surface, it is out of reverence for them, but underneath, it perhaps reflects resentment over the Empire of Japan’s loss of Karafuto.

Turning inland from the seaside, I spent over an hour driving through a dense forest to reach the Sea of Japan side. Near the coast is an open wetland named the Sarobetsu Wetland (佐呂別溼原). The Sarobetsu Wetland covers an area of 200 square kilometers, and most of it is primitive wetland. This area was originally targeted for land reclamation after WWII, but after 1965 it was designated as a national park, allowing its original state to be preserved.

Standing by the road looking towards the wetland, a cool north wind blew. Flowers dotted the grass, which was as tall as a person, backed by the setting sun and volcanic cones.

The glory before the sunset is fleeting, so I continued westward. By the time I reached the shore of the Sea of Japan, the sun had begun to sink in the west. Behind the vast wetland stood Mt. Rishiri Fuji (利尻富士) across the sea; the scenery was magnificent.

I stood by the sea until the sun had completely fallen into the ocean before leaving. Such beautiful scenery is unforgettable for a lifetime.

Wakkanai and the Other Side of the Sea

The next day, I woke up early to find the sky didn’t look good; Rishiri Fuji on the sea had completely disappeared from sight. Not only that, but a gale was blowing, and the temperature had plummeted to only 15 degrees Celsius. In fact, this is the typical summer weather in Wakkanai; the clear skies of the previous day were the rarity. Wakkanai, Rebun, and Rishiri are located exactly at the confluence of the Tsushima Current (warm) from the Sea of Japan and the Liman Current (cold) from the west of Sakhalin, making the climate here changeable and especially foggy in summer.

After breakfast, following a brief stop at Cape Noshappu, I headed to Wakkanai Park. Wakkanai Park is on a hill, and at the summit is the Centennial Memorial Tower. The observation deck on the top floor offers views in all directions. If the weather is good, you can simultaneously see Karafuto to the north, Rebun and Rishiri to the west, and Cape Soya to the east. Unfortunately, I could only see Wakkanai City below; Rishiri Island and Sakhalin, which were clearly visible yesterday, were gone. However, compared to the thick fog when I first came here in 2017, it was already much better.

The bottom two floors of the Centennial Memorial Tower house a museum. The first floor introduces local Wakkanai folklore and the surveying and exploration of Ino Tadataka (伊能忠敬) and Mamiya Rinzo (間宮林藏). On the floor is a large map of Hokkaido drawn by Ino Tadataka in the early 19th century; the technique is superb. Mamiya Rinzo’s two expeditions to Karafuto departed from Wakkanai. An interesting detail is that Mamiya Rinzo’s fleet found the mouth of the Amur River (Black Dragon River/黑龍江) and even met with local officials of the Qing Dynasty near Mykolayivsk-on-Amur. Mamiya Rinzo’s book “Todatsu Chiho Kiko” (Travels in East Tartary) contains illustrations of “Barbarian Disturbances,” depicting very vivid scenes.

Japan’s claim to Karafuto originated from these two expeditions by Mamiya Rinzo. By the time Japan’s national power was sufficient to support large-scale colonization, the Russian Empire had long been eyeing it covetously. The exhibition on the second floor of the museum is about Japan’s rule over Karafuto, and the content is also very interesting. The display covers the forty years of Japan’s colonial development of South Karafuto from the victory in the Russo-Japanese War to the defeat in the Pacific War, including administrative divisions, railway infrastructure, steamship routes, coal mining, forestry, immigration, and even tourism—truly covering every aspect.

I stayed in the museum for over an hour and still felt like I wanted more.

At the foot of the Memorial Tower hill, there is an observation deck called the “Gate of Ice and Snow” (Hyosetsu no Mon). It is said that you can see Karafuto when the weather is clear. There is a statue of the “Nine Maidens” on the observation deck, showing that for many Japanese coming here to pay their respects, it is not purely for worship but also involves a sentiment of “nostalgia for the lost territory.”

After descending the mountain, I passed through the center of Wakkanai and arrived at the Wakkanai Fukuko Market by the sea. Inside the market, there is another Karafuto Museum. The exhibits in this Karafuto Museum are somewhat similar to those regarding Karafuto in the Centennial Memorial Tower, but the materials are richer, and there are active staff and volunteers attempting to explain the history. notably, the museum houses a “Japan-Russia Border Stone” that was once placed at the 50th parallel north.

In short, one can see that many Japanese have complex emotions regarding Karafuto, which they once colonized. Some groups still refuse to give up their claim to Karafuto, even though this is even more hopeless than reclaiming the “Northern Territories.” Imagine if Japan had not ceded Karafuto; Sakhalin Island today would surely be a completely different scene.

Historically, the struggle for spheres of influence between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire was mainly concentrated in Manchuria and Karafuto. Unlike Manchuria, Karafuto was incorporated into Japan’s “Inland” (Naichi), just like Korea and Taiwan. As for China, not to mention the weakness and poverty of the late Qing Dynasty, even during its prosperous periods, it never had actual control over Sakhalin. The central dynasties generally couldn’t be bothered to govern such remote and barbarous lands, only requiring local tribes to pay tribute, and even the tribute was interrupted at times. However, thriving trade with China did reach here. A very interesting piece of evidence is “Ezo Nishiki” (Ezo Brocade). Ezo Nishiki refers to trade items between the Matsumae Domain (松前藩) of Hokkaido and the Ainu people during the Japanese Shogunate period. These silks were exquisitely textured, woven with dragon patterns and peonies, and were basically Qing Dynasty official robes. In fact, these exquisite official robes originated in Jiangnan, with Suzhou as the distribution center. They were sold to Beijing via the Grand Canal, then transported to the birthplace of the dragon beyond the pass, traveled north along the water network of the Amur River, and sold to the Ainu people of Sakhalin. Finally, the Ainu sold these silks and satins to the Japanese, eventually reaching Edo Castle.

The trade route of Ezo Nishiki is truly breathtaking, and Wakkanai was at the throat of this trade route. In addition to overseas trade, thanks to the ocean currents, Wakkanai also has a very developed fishing industry. The center of Wakkanai still preserves a “Seto Residence,” which was the private residence of a local fishery tycoon in 1952.

After having lunch at Japan’s northernmost train station, I walked to the ferry terminal. The Wakkanai Ferry Terminal has two buildings. One is for international lines, heading to Korsakov (科爾薩科夫) on Sakhalin Island, known as Otomari (大泊) during the Japanese rule. Unfortunately, this passenger route has been suspended for over a year, retaining only a cargo ship that runs a few times a year. I don’t know if there is any hope for restoration in the future. Even in the past, this route was unreliable, always subject to various temporary cancellations. Japan has always said it was due to the capriciousness of the Russian side. But the real reason is probably that there are too few passengers to make it economically viable, and politically there is a lack of motivation for Japan-Russia friendship, so neither government is willing to provide subsidies.

The Floating Island of Flowers: Rebun

Opposite the dilapidated international terminal is the well-maintained Rebun-Rishiri Ferry Terminal, operated by Heartland Ferry, usually with three ferries a day. I bought a ticket from Wakkanai to Rebun for that day, and a ticket from Rebun to Rishiri for the next day. The sea journey of about fifty kilometers from Wakkanai to Rebun took about two hours. There weren’t many passengers on the boat, and even fewer tourists from outside. Usually, July is the golden travel season for Rebun, but this year the coronavirus hit tourism too hard, especially since tour groups had not yet returned, so tourists were scarce. The Japanese have a strong preference for tour groups, which occupy more than half of the market.

I stayed at an Onsen Ryokan (hot spring inn) in Kafuka (香深) on the island, very close to the ferry terminal. After dropping off my luggage, I took advantage of the clearing sky before sunset to climb Momoiwa (Peach Rock/桃巖).

The small town of Kafuka was very quiet. There were only a few Onsen Ryokans and small shops for locals by the sea, and a shrine and a temple in the mountains. It was just a few minutes’ walk to the trailhead. The path wasn’t difficult, and it was clear that someone was maintaining it carefully. After climbing for ten minutes, the vegetation changed from forest to alpine grassland, offering a very open view of both the mountains and the sea.

Seeing that the sun was about to set, I decided to return; Momoiwa would have to wait until the next day.

I returned to the Onsen Ryokan at 6:30 PM and began to enjoy dinner. High-end Onsen Ryokans in Japan almost always provide two meals (breakfast and dinner), which is very different from other countries where generally only breakfast is provided. This is because enjoying a carefully prepared Kaiseki meal at the Onsen Ryokan is the most indispensable part of the entire experience.

Situated at the confluence of two ocean currents, Rebun and Rishiri have large fishing grounds nearby, producing abundant cold-water seafood. The most famous are Rebun’s Uni (sea urchin) and Rishiri’s Konbu (kelp). Although Rebun Island is located in a remote area, the abundant catch and relatively mild climate once attracted a large number of immigrants. In the Showa era, the population reached nearly 10,000, but now it is only about 2,000, with a highly aging population.

When I woke up the next morning, the weather was still not very clear, and even Rishiri Fuji was invisible. After eating the exquisite breakfast provided by the ryokan, I rented a car to head to the north side of Rebun Island. Car rental prices on both Rebun and Rishiri remote islands are very expensive, about three or four times higher than in Hokkaido proper. This is likely due to monopoly; I wonder if the local government intentionally restricts it. If you bring your own car, the ferry price is also very expensive, making it worthwhile only if you stay on the island for a long time, whereas most tourists stay for at most two or three days.

Driving from Kafuka to Cape Sukoton (須古頓岬) at the northernmost tip of Rebun Island took over forty minutes. On the way, I saw wild seals on the reefs. Cape Sukoton offers magnificent scenery and is very windy, giving quite a feeling of being at the end of the world. Although Rebun Island is not high in altitude, the vegetation is mainly grassland, with sparse forests.

Driving back from Cape Sukoton, I arrived at the foot of Momoiwa again. Although I easily climbed to the observation deck at the top, the lighting was far inferior to yesterday.

Most residents of Rebun Island live on the east and north sides of the island; there are almost no roads on the west side. There is actually a 1.7-kilometer tunnel between the only settlement on the west side and Kafuka Port. Considering the entire island’s population is only just over two thousand, one has to marvel at the extravagance of Japanese infrastructure.

Viewing Momoiwa from the west, one can understand why it is called Peach Rock. From this angle, the mountain really looks like a plump peach.

Next post: Northern Immortal Islands Part 2.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-rebun-rishiri-1/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid

Wandering in Japan: Shikoku from Tosa to Iyo

Sun, 14 Mar 2021 15:32:00 +0800

Beyond the Void https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-tosa-iyo/ -

At the end of July 2020, taking advantage of the consecutive holidays originally intended for the opening ceremony of the Tokyo Olympics, I decided to visit Shikoku and Okinawa again (Itinerary Map).

Kochi (高知)

The rainy season was finally coming to an end, followed by Japan’s most sweltering and humid midsummer. Domestic flights at Haneda Airport had recovered to nearly half their usual volume, and the terminal was returning to its former hustle and bustle. The plane I took was parked at a remote stand, requiring a bus ride from the boarding gate. After a flight of over an hour, the plane landed at Kochi Airport. Stepping off the plane, a wave of heat hit me. It was already 32 degrees Celsius in the early morning, which, combined with a relative humidity of over 90%, was unbearable.

This was not my first time in Kochi; I had visited in April 2019, but it rained the entire time. Although April is not the rainy season, the side of Shikoku facing the Pacific Ocean receives extremely abundant rainfall, making it the “rain pole” of Japan. Conversely, the Seto Inland Sea coast on the other side of the Shikoku Mountains is the place with the least rainfall in Japan. This time Kochi was sunny, but simply too hot. I took a bus to the city center and got off at Harimayabashi (播磨屋橋). The temperature continued to rise above 35 degrees, and the moment I got off the car, I lost the motivation to walk around the streets. Nevertheless, I braved the scorching sun to walk over and see the famous Harimayabashi. Harimayabashi was once a small private bridge in the Edo period, built by the local merchant Harimaya, hence the name. Later, this area became the core of the Kochi castle town (Jōkamachi), and even now, it remains the intersection of two Tosaden Kōtsū streetcar lines.

Continuing west from Harimayabashi, I walked all the way to the vicinity of Kochi Castle Park, passing several empty shopping streets. Perhaps it was because it was too early in the morning, so they hadn’t opened yet. There is a history museum at the entrance of Kochi Castle Park. The building looks beautiful from the outside, and the interior decoration is a modern Japanese design. I had already seen it when I came last year, so I just enjoyed the air conditioning inside for a few minutes before leaving. This time inside the museum, I noticed that Kochi Castle lies between two rivers and was originally called “Kauchiyamajō (河內山城)”. Later, due to phonetic shifts, “River” changed from “kaha^kapa” to “kawa^kawa” (Ha-row shifting), where “wa^wa” merged with “u^u” to become “kauti^kauti”, taking the kanji “Kautiyamajō (高智山城)”. Later still, “Ti (智)” merged into “Chi (知)”, becoming today’s “Kochi Castle (高知城)”. After the implementation of Modern Kana Usage, the kana became “kōchi^kōchi”.

I had intended to climb Kochi Castle again, but the weather left me with absolutely no energy. I took the streetcar back to Kochi Station and bought a limited express ticket to Sukumo.

Sukumo (宿毛)

The train from Kochi to Sukumo travels via the Dosan Line, the Nakamura Line, and the Sukumo Line. The limited express train I took only went from Kochi to Nakamura, where I had to transfer to another train for Sukumo. Upon entering the station, I saw a train with only two cars parked at the platform. Its exterior was worn, and I initially thought it was a local train. However, since I didn’t see any other trains, I double-checked and realized this was indeed the limited express I was to take. It was my first time seeing such a dilapidated limited express train in Japan; Shikoku Railway Company (JR Shikoku) is indeed in financial difficulty. In these two cars, the front half of Car 1 was reserved seating, and the rear half was non-reserved. The train was diesel-powered, the tracks were not electrified, and the ride was very bumpy due to limited maintenance. Although called a “Limited Express,” its operating speed was not fast, and it made many stops along the way, averaging less than 100 kilometers per hour. Yet, the ticket was not any cheaper than elsewhere. However, thinking that JR Shikoku is still struggling to operate, I considered the extra cost a donation to protect historical heritage.

Although the train goes directly to Nakamura, the section from Kubokawa to Nakamura is actually owned by another company, the Tosa Kuroshio Railway. The line from Kubokawa to Nakamura was the Nakamura Line of the Japanese National Railways (JNR) era. Later, when JNR was broken up, this railway was taken over by a “Third Sector Railway” formed by the local government, which is the current Tosa Kuroshio Railway. Upon arriving at Nakamura, I switched to a local train to continue to Sukumo. The section from Nakamura to Sukumo is the Sukumo Line operated by the Tosa Kuroshio Railway. The Sukumo Line is a branch line built after the breakup of JNR, which is rare outside of Japan’s major metropolitan areas. JNR’s original plan was to extend the Nakamura Line all the way to Uwajima, but this plan was cancelled after finances deteriorated in 1980. Surprisingly, the Tosa Kuroshio Railway continued construction in 1987, and it was finally completed in 1997. As for the section from Sukumo to Uwajima, it is likely impossible to realize in the future; just keeping the current section from being abolished is difficult enough.

After arriving in Sukumo, I wandered around the station area before starting my return journey. The area surrounding Sukumo Station is farmland, along with several cheap large shopping malls with huge parking lots in front, somewhat resembling the American countryside. The Japanese countryside actually relies heavily on private cars, and public transportation is very inconvenient. I wonder if it was influenced by American urban planning after the war; aside from big city centers, American-style shopping plazas are numerous and distributed along major traffic routes. Main streets in small towns are conversely quite desolate, bearing similarities to the decay of American city centers.

Kubokawa (窪川)

After thirty minutes on the train, I returned to Nakamura Station. Considering the next train was in half an hour, I wandered around the station again. Regrettably, apart from a small town on the decline, there was nothing nearby.

Another hour after boarding, I returned to Kubokawa, which is the junction of the Yodo Line, Dosan Line, and Nakamura Line. My next destination was Uwajima at the other end of the Yodo Line, so I walked around the vicinity while waiting for the train. Not far from Kubokawa Station is Iwamotoji (巖本寺), the 37th temple of the Shikoku Pilgrimage (Shikoku 88 Temples). Iwamotoji belongs to the Shingon sect, and its most distinctive feature is the painted coffered ceiling in the main hall, featuring 575 exquisite paintings.

Returning to Kubokawa Station, I boarded a train originating from this station on the Yodo Line heading to Uwajima. The name Yodo Line (豫土線) is taken from Iyo Province (伊豫國) and Tosa Province (土佐國), which are present-day Ehime and Kochi prefectures respectively. There are very few trains on the Yodo Line each day, and there are no limited express trains, but I happened to get on a sightseeing train called the “Kaiyodo Hobby Train”.

This train weaved through deep mountains and gorges the entire way. The route was sparsely populated, and my phone often had no signal. As the sky gradually grew dark, the train drove out of the mountainous area. After a total of over an hour, we finally reached the terminus, Uwajima.

Uwajima (宇和島)

The scenery outside Uwajima Station is quite unique, with many palm trees. This is because Uwajima promotes a “Southern Country” characteristic, so this batch was planted artificially.

Since I was in Uwajima, I couldn’t miss tasting the local specialty, Tai-meshi (Sea Bream Rice). I went to a restaurant called “Kadoya” near the station and ordered the Date Gozen. Uwajima is located in the southern part of Iyo Province, also known as the Nanyo region, and Nanyo Tai-meshi is a local specialty. The way to eat Tai-meshi is to first dip sea bream sashimi in a sauce made of dashi, soy sauce, and raw egg, and then pour the sauce over rice.

Early the next morning, the weather was still sunny, and it was still as unbearably hot and humid as the day before. I arrived at Tenshaen (天赦園) at 8:30. Tenshaen is a famous circuit-style garden in Uwajima. Although it was a holiday, I was the only visitor in the garden in the morning. Actually, visiting Japanese gardens in midsummer is not a very good experience because there are too many insects, especially spider webs everywhere; if you’re not careful, they stick to you.

After touring Tenshaen, I went to the nearby Date Museum, which exhibits historical artifacts of the Date family. The Date family were the daimyo (feudal lords) who ruled the Uwajima Domain for 400 years, with Date Hidemune as the ancestor. Date Hidemune was the eldest illegitimate son of Date Masamune of the Sendai Domain and was enfeoffed in Uwajima. However, the Uwajima Domain did not have a subordinate relationship with the Sendai Domain. There aren’t many exhibits in the museum, but it reflects that various places in Japan still commemorate the daimyo families that once ruled them.

Next, I started climbing the mountain to see Uwajima Castle. The castle keep (Tenshu) of Uwajima Castle is one of the twelve existing original keeps in Japan, not a modern reconstruction. The climb was very arduous, not because the mountain was high, but because the weather was too hot, and wearing a mask made breathing particularly difficult. The interior of the Uwajima Castle keep is open to visitors, but photography is prohibited. The keep is small in scale, with only three stories. There is also a Castle Mountain Folk Museum on the mountain, which exhibits the deeds of many local celebrities.

After descending from the north side, I walked north for another twenty minutes to visit Taga Shrine. Although I only walked for twenty minutes, the blazing sun and humidity made me feel like I was going to suffocate. The reason for visiting Taga Shrine is that this shrine has Japan’s largest collection of sex worship items. Taga Shrine is also known as Dekoboko Shindō (凸凹神堂), and the shrine has a three-story museum that collects items related to sex culture from Japan and all over the world; its breadth is breathtaking. Photography is generally prohibited; if you need to take photos, you need to pay a fee of 20,000 yen.

After seeing Dekoboko Shindō, I walked along the river to Warei Shrine. Upon returning to Uwajima Train Station, I was soaked through with sweat; Japan’s midsummer is truly grueling. My next destination was Ozu (大洲), which takes about 50 minutes from Uwajima via the Yosan Line.

Ozu (大洲)

Similar to Uwajima, Ozu was also once the stronghold of a domain. The Ozu Domain was slightly smaller than the Uwajima Domain, but its castle town (Jōkamachi) has been preserved with more of its original flavor. It takes more than twenty minutes to walk from Iyo-Ozu Train Station to the castle town, but there is a bus connection. The center of Ozu is called Honmachi, and the streets still have a Meiji-era feel.

The first thing that attracted me was the Ozu Red Brick Hall, a 1901 eclectic Japanese-Western style building that was originally the Ozu Commercial Bank. Many small towns in Japan have similar bank buildings from that era, which were symbols of civilization and enlightenment at the time.

Next to the Red Brick Hall is a restaurant called Aburaya. Although it was already past 1 PM, there was still a line for dining. This restaurant has a long history; the building is an old folk house (Kominka), and the interior decoration is bright and elegant. I enjoyed the shop’s specialty: pork and chestnut rice.

After lunch, I continued sightseeing around Honmachi. Right next to the Red Brick Hall is a tall river embankment. The embankment protects the small town like a city wall and has gates to facilitate entry and exit.

Walking a little to the east is a famous sightseeing spot in Ozu called “Pokopen Yokocho” (不彀本^Pokopen Alley). This is a retro market that is only open on Sundays. Although it was empty, I went in to take a look. The most interesting thing is actually its name. The word “Pokopen” comes from “Soldier Chinese” (Heitai Shinago)—simplified Chinese spoken by the Japanese military. The so-called “Pokopen” derives from the phrase Chinese peddlers used when bargaining: “Bù gòu běn” (不夠本 - not enough capital/at a loss), which was understood as a refusal, equivalent to the Japanese “Dame” (No good). This word was later brought back to Japan by the army following Japan’s defeat and turned into the name of a game played by children. The “Pokopen” here likely takes its name from this game, representing a nostalgia for the Showa era.

Continuing east along the river embankment, I arrived at Ozu’s most famous garden, Garyu Sanso (Wandering Dragon Villa). Garyu Sanso is built on a cliff by the river and features several buildings in the style of Japanese tea houses, with elegant interior decorations. At the end of the garden is a square pavilion called Furo-an; half of the pavilion is built out over the cliff, supported by wooden pillars from below. The pavilion offers a panoramic view of the river scenery.

After viewing Garyu Sanso, I walked through the castle town all the way to Ozu Castle in the west. Ozu’s castle town is well preserved; a large number of wooden old houses and white walls recreate the characteristics of the Edo period. Ozu Castle is built on a hill by the river and features a reconstructed castle keep. This reconstructed keep employed traditional construction methods as much as possible and is a purely wooden structure, distinctly different from concrete buildings like Osaka Castle.

After spending a pleasant afternoon in Ozu, I slowly walked back to Iyo-Ozu Station to continue to Matsuyama. I got off early at Iyo City (Iyoshi) and switched to the Iyotetsu local train, which goes directly to the center of Matsuyama; this line is used by many commuters.

Matsuyama (松山)

This was my second time in Matsuyama. Matsuyama’s most famous sightseeing spot is Dogo Onsen, but I didn’t go there again this time; instead, I went to sleep early at a hotel in the city center. The next morning, it started to rain, and it finally cooled down a bit. In the early morning, I climbed to Shinonome Shrine halfway up the mountain. The mountain was devoid of people, and the scenery was refreshing and quiet.

Having finally cooled down a bit, I was, however, about to continue to Okinawa, where the heatwave was waiting for me ahead.

- https://byvoid.com/en/blog/jp-roaming-tosa-iyo/ - 2007-{year} BYVoid